TEST RESULT ANALYZER

We created this guide so that everyone can look up unfamiliar terms in their discharge summary and gain a more complete understanding of its contents.

Dictionary

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V X Y

Abductio (abduction):

Moving away from the midline of the body; e.g., the m. gluteus medius abducts (opens) the thigh.

Abductor (abductor):

Abducting – any muscle that moves the given limb away from the centre line of the body.

Aberratio (aberration):

A condition or function that deviates from the normal.

Acetabulum (acetabulum):

The socket of the hip joint.

Acetabulum / Articular cavity (acetabulum):

Concave articular end of a bone in which the articular head moves.

Achilles tendon:

The common tendon of a group of calf muscles above the heel, which performs the action of standing on tiptoe.

Acidum uricum (uric acid):

A substance formed in the body, a metabolic waste product, which is eliminated by the kidneys.

Acromion:

Shoulder height.

ACTH:

Adrenocorticotropic hormone; a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates secretion by the adrenal cortex. It stimulates the secretion of anti-inflammatory corticosteroids in the adrenal cortex, thereby exerting an anti-inflammatory effect.

Acute (acutus):

Sharp, of rapid onset and short course.

Adductio (adduction):

Moving toward the midline of the body.

Adductor (adductor):

Adducting – any muscle that moves the given limb closer to the line of the body; e.g., the muscle group located on the inner part of the thigh, often referred to as the "riding muscle."

Adhaesio (adhesion):

Pathological growing together or bonding of tissues.

Adhesiv capsulitis (adhesive capsulitis):

Frozen shoulder. A painful condition accompanied by restricted movement. As a result, the shoulder joint capsule and the connective tissue around the shoulder joint become inflamed, movement becomes limited, and it causes chronic pain.

Adrenal gland (glandula suprarenalis):

An endocrine gland. The two adrenal glands are located on the upper part of the kidneys and consist of two parts: the cortex and the medulla. The hormone of the medulla accelerates the heart rate and raises blood pressure. In the cortex, so-called cortical hormones—medically termed corticosteroids—are produced, which regulate salt-water balance and sugar metabolism, and also produce sex hormones. Certain members of this group are potent anti-inflammatory agents and are utilized as medications.

Adreno-:

Pertaining to the adrenal gland.

Agenesia (agenesis):

The undeveloped state or rudimentary development of an organ.

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome):

Caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection. The virus infects certain immune cells. It impairs the body's defense against infections and certain tumours. The disease is transmitted sexually (with homosexual relationships carrying a higher risk), through blood (blood transfusion, sharing injection needles), and from mother to foetus. HIV-infected individuals can remain asymptomatic for years. The infection that causes symptoms can result in general complaints: sweating, diarrhoea, weight loss, debilitation, often life-threatening infections, malignant tumours, nervous system damage, dementia, meningitis, and neuritis.
Several musculoskeletal diseases have been described in connection with the HIV virus:
– During fresh HIV infection, temporary joint pain; in the later period, inflammation affecting a few joints or polyarthritis,
– A symptom complex characteristic of unusually severe Reiter's syndrome, reactive arthritis, or psoriatic arthritis; muscle, joint, and bone infections, and autoimmune diseases are typical.

Algodystrophia (algodystrophy):

Also referred to as Sudeck's syndrome.

Anaemia (anemia):

Deficiency of red blood cells or hemoglobin (anemia).

Analgeticum (analgesic):

Pain-relieving agent.

Ankylosing spondylitis (ankylosing spondylitis):

Also referred to as Bechterew's disease.

Ankylosing spondylitis (SPA - Spondylarthritis ankylopoetica):

A chronic inflammatory disease leading to ossification of the sacroiliac joints, spinal joints, and ligaments. It mainly affects the facet joints, spinal ligaments, and entheses in the thoracic, lumbar, and sacroiliac (SI) regions. Inflammation alters vertebral body morphology and causes ligament ossification. Historically reported more in men, the male-to-female ratio has now equalized. Origin is unknown, but genetic predisposition (HLA-B27 gene) and altered immune function are evident. Onset is usually after age 45. Characterized by a relapsing-remitting course. Flare-ups can be delayed with targeted physical therapy and exercise. Symptoms range widely from mild stiffness to complete ankylosis (ossification); they are worse in the morning and frequently disrupt sleep. The cardinal symptom is pain throughout the spine and back, ranging from discomfort to severe spasms. It is accompanied by limited mobility, stiffness, and inflammation of periarticular tissues, affecting the spine, hip joints, and pelvis. Posture changes: lumbar lordosis flattens and thoracic kyphosis increases. Treatment: reducing inflammation with NSAIDs and steroids, improving movement via physical therapy, joint protection, and surgical intervention when needed to preserve mobility.

Ankylosis (ankylosis):

Bony fusion or complete stiffening of a joint.

Anomaly:

Abnormality, irregularity.

Ante-:

Before, forward.

Situated in front, forward-facing.

Anti-:

Against.

Antibacterialis (antibacterial):

Directed against bacteria.

Antibioticum (antibiotic):

Medicines that destroy bacteria or inhibit their reproduction, which were previously produced with the help of molds, but today can generally be prepared via chemical pathways as well.

Antibody:

A substance produced against foreign proteins (for example, bacteria, group-incompatible red blood cells) that have entered the body. The antibody reacts with the foreign substance, the antigen, with the goal of removing the antigen from the body or rendering it harmless.

Antibody:

Antigen (antigen):

A protein foreign to the body, for example, a bacterium or group-incompatible red blood cell, or antibody, which triggers a defensive reaction, the so-called immune response, in the immune system.

Antinuclear antibody (ANA):

An antibody directed against the cell nucleus; its appearance is characteristic of autoimmune diseases.

Antiphlogisticus (antiphlogistic / anti-inflammatory):

The collective name for treatments, medicines, and creams with an anti-inflammatory effect.

Antiphlogisticus (antiphlogistic):

Anti-inflammatory agent.

Antiphlogistine poultice:

The name of an anti-inflammatory cream with a specific composition, prepared for poultice/dressing purposes.

Antipyreticum (antipyretic):

Fever-reducing agent.

Antirheumaticum (antirheumatic):

Agent used against rheumatism.

Arteritis (arteritis):

Inflammation of an artery.

Artery:

A blood vessel that carries fresh blood from the heart to the tissues.

Arthralgia (arthralgia):

Joint pain.

Arthritis (arthritis):

Joint inflammation. See also: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis.

Arthrocentesis (arthocentesis):

Puncture or incision of a joint.

Arthrodesis (arthrodesis):

Surgical stiffening of a joint, considered only in cases of severely reduced function and great pain. It results in a stable, painless, well-loadable joint.

Arthrographia (arthrography):

A special X-ray examination of a joint. A contrast agent is injected into the joint cavity, which outlines the shape of the cavity or any potential cysts associated with the joint in a lighter color on the image. This examination is generally used for evaluating the knee, shoulder, and ankle; the image displays a shoulder joint.

Arthropathia (arthropathy):

A joint disorder or disease, the cause of which can be inflammation or degeneration (wear).

Arthroplastica (arthroplasty):

Joint reconstruction surgery, generally performed with various types of prostheses, tendon or muscle transposition, or by changing the alignment of bones.

Arthroscopy:

An instrumental examination, reviewing the inside of the joint—synovial membrane, cartilage surface, capsule, ligaments—using an optical instrument introduced into the joint. With a significant portion of these tools, minor surgical interventions, sampling for histological examination, and the removal of foreign bodies or broken pieces of cartilage can be performed.

Arthrosis (arthrosis):

A degenerative disease of the joint in which the cartilage wears away over time, and the bones come closer together. In advanced stages, a bone-on-bone contact can develop. It usually appears first on joints subjected to greater, repeated physical load, such as in heavily training athletes or people performing physical work. Other causes can include: age, overweight or obesity, genetic factors, hormonal imbalance, joint injury, or surgery. Its symptoms (joint pain, stiffness, decreased range of motion) develop slowly and worsen over time.

Arthrotomia (arthrotomy):

Surgical opening of a joint in order to reduce or eliminate long-standing symptoms that cannot be treated conservatively.

Articular cartilage (cartilago articularis):

Covers the articular ends of bones and ensures their elastic cushioning/impact absorption.

Articular head (caput articulare):

Convex articular end of a bone.

Articularis (articular):

Pertaining to a joint.

Articulatio (articulation):

Joint.

Atrophia (atrophy):

Wasting away or shrinking of tissue or an organ.

Autoantibody:

An antibody formed against the body's own substances.

Autoimmune processes:

Pathological processes during which the body triggers an immune response against its own materials. The immune system launches an abnormal, aggressive immune response against a structure normally found in the body. A distinction is made between organ-specific diseases, which are limited to a specific organ or tissue type (e.g., autoimmune thyroiditis), and systemic autoimmune conditions, in which various organs or organ systems are affected (e.g., SLE). Autoimmune conditions affect approximately 7-8 percent of the total population, and most of them are characterized by a strong female dominance (about 75 percent of all patients are women), often appearing at a young, working age. A combination of innate genetic predisposition and environmental factors plays a role in their development, but their exact cause remains unknown in the majority of cases. They often occur in clusters, meaning that in a patient suffering from one autoimmune disease, another such condition may appear after a certain period of time. They present with diverse symptoms and typically follow a chronic course, with some involving life-threatening complications.
Their therapy primarily utilizes medications that weaken the immune system (immunosuppressants). Recently, numerous targeted biological therapies have also become available, which have proven effective even in conditions that previously often seemed untreatable.

Axilla:

Armpit.

Baastrup's syndrome:

In case of Baastrup's syndrome, the spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae are congenitally longer, their ends are close to each other, touch, and rub against one another, causing inflammation and pain. In older age, it is a disease accompanied by osteoarthritis of the facet joints and bone spur (osteophyte) formation. Baastrup's syndrome is a disease of unknown origin. Pain occurring upon physical load and backward bending (extension) is characteristic. The lumbar curvature (lordosis) is more pronounced. Spondylolisthesis (vertebral slippage) may also occur, where the last lumbar vertebra slips forward over the sacrum.

Baker's cyst (Baker cyst):

A Baker's cyst is a fluid-filled sac that appears as a lump in the popliteal fossa (back of the knee), causing a tight sensation. The pain worsens at the limits of the range of motion, meaning it increases during full flexion and extension of the knee, as well as during use. Sometimes, a Baker's cyst appears without pain and goes unnoticed by the affected person. If the formation of the cyst is not unnoticeable, it may be accompanied by the following symptoms: knee pain, swelling in the back of the knee (and sometimes in the leg), stiffness of the knee, a tight feeling in the back of the knee, and an inability to fully bend the knee.

Balneotherapy:

Spa therapy / medicinal bath treatment.

Balneum:

Bath.

Bechterew's disease:

Also known as ankylosing spondylitis (SPA); an inflammatory joint disease that mainly affects the facet joints and ligaments of the spine, as well as the insertion sites of ligaments and tendons in the thoracic and lumbar sections of the spine, and in the sacroiliac (SI) joint. As a result of the inflammation, the shape of the vertebral bodies changes, and the ligaments ossify. More men used to be affected by the disease than women, but today this ratio has balanced out. Its origin is unknown, but a genetic predisposition can be detected (involvement of the HLA-B27 gene), and an altered functioning of the immune system can also be demonstrated. The disease usually manifests after the age of 45. The disease is characterized by a flaring-and-remitting course. Flare-up periods can be prolonged/delayed with targeted physiotherapy and exercise. Symptoms of the disease vary across a wide spectrum, from mild stiffness to complete ossification, but they are worse in the morning than during the day and frequently cause sleep disturbances. Generally, the characteristic symptom is pain in the spine and the entire back, which can vary from discomfort to spasmodic pain. It is usually accompanied by restricted movement, stiffness, and inflammation of the joints and periarticular tissues, which manifests not only in the spine but also in the hip joints and pelvis. Posture changes; lumbar lordosis disappears, and thoracic kyphosis increases. Treatment: reduction of inflammation with non-steroidal and steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, improvement of movements through physiotherapy, joint protection, and subsequently, maintaining mobility via surgical solutions.

Behçet's syndrome:

A disease of unknown origin that can cause ulcers in the mouth, on the genitals, and potentially on the skin, as well as eye inflammation, abdominal complaints, thrombophlebitis (vein inflammation), nervous system alterations, and arthritis. Steroid treatment, dosed depending on the symptoms, is mostly effective in relieving complaints, but relapses must be expected.

Biological therapy:

In biological systems, physiological phenomena such as inflammation, cell division, cell death, bone building, and bone resorption consist of a chain of complex biochemical reactions. Precise knowledge of these makes it possible to effectively influence the process by selectively blocking a well-defined reaction that plays a role in the given physiological phenomenon. In biological therapy, we slow down, or in favourable cases, halt the disease process by blocking a certain reaction that plays a key role in it. In neoplastic, haematological (blood-forming organ), and inflammatory diseases, well-proven, effective, and safely applicable biological therapies are already used in clinical practice, but there are promising results in many other fields as well, such as in the treatment of immunological diseases, osteoporosis, and gout. Multiple agents with various targets are available to suppress the inflammatory reaction; among these, TNF-alpha blockers have proven to be the most effective. These include Enbrel (etanercept), Humira (adalimumab), and Remicade (infliximab). These have roughly similar effects, are similarly effective, and their side effects are also roughly identical. They are effective drugs in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, certain juvenile arthritides, and some inflammatory bowel diseases, such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.

Biological treatment:

The use of substances that influence the functioning of the immune system—mostly substances that are also produced by the body during immune reactions—for the treatment of neoplastic (cancerous) and autoimmune diseases. For the time being, these are very expensive therapies that are in the experimental stage or undergoing early clinical trials.

Biopsia (biopsy):

A procedure during which tissue is removed from an organ for histological examination.

Boeck's sarcoidosis:

A chronic disease characterized by the accumulation of lymphocytes in the chest, eyes, and skin. Half of those affected have no symptoms, and it is discovered only by chance. Its cause is unknown, probably of autoimmune origin. It is characterized by episodes that resolve spontaneously and flare up.

Bone softening – Osteomalacia:

Generally due to vitamin D deficiency, minerals are not incorporated into the bones to an adequate extent. The bones are poor in lime, soft, and tender to pressure; frequently, the muscles of the thigh are also painful upon weight-bearing. Patients fatigue easily, are pale, and have a waddling gait. In severe cases, the soft bones bend or fracture under the weight of the body. The disease can generally be cured with an adequate intake of vitamin D and calcium.

Borrelia burgdorferi:

A pathogen transmitted by arthropods, the causative agent of Lyme disease.

Brachialgia:

Arm pain.

Brachium:

Arm.

Brucellosis:

An infectious disease. It spreads from cows, sheep, pigs, and goats to humans; the milk of the animals is also infectious. It does not usually spread from human to human. It primarily occurs in animal handlers and veterinarians. It can be accompanied by fever, weakness, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver) and splenomegaly (enlarged spleen), and orchitis (testicular inflammation). Diffuse joint, bone, and muscle pain is frequently observed. It can primarily cause arthritis of the hip and knee, sacroiliac arthritis, and spondylitis (vertebral inflammation). Antibiotics effectively cure the disease. Joint complaints can be alleviated with anti-inflammatory drugs.

Bulla:

Blister, bubble; a blister located between the layers of the skin.

Bursa (bursa):

Synovial bursa. Occurring in large numbers around joints, these are sacs that produce a viscous fluid, allowing their two surfaces to glide easily over each other. They enable the frictionless movement of the overlying muscle, tendon, etc.

Bursectomia (bursectomy):

The surgical removal of a bursa.

Bursitis (bursitis):

Inflammation of a bursa. Due to chronic irritation of the bursa, overuse of the overlying muscle, or as a partial manifestation of some disease, inflammation develops in the bursa, which is accompanied by pain, swelling, and tenderness to pressure. It most commonly occurs in the shoulder, on the outer side of the hip, in the popliteal fossa (back of the knee), in front of the kneecap (patella), and above the heel. Temporary immobilization and compresses of the limb, and if necessary, aspiration of the inflammatory exudate or X-ray irradiation, generally eliminate the complaints. Surgical removal of the bursa is rarely required.

Calcaneus:

Heel bone.

Calcar:

Spur.

Calcaria:

Lime / calcium.

Calcinosis:

Calcium deposition.

Calcitonin:

A hormone produced in the thyroid gland that participates in the regulation of calcium metabolism, inhibits bone resorption, and is an effective medication in the treatment of osteoporosis.

Calcium (Ca):

An element occurring in large quantities in the body. An adult human contains an average of 1.2 kg of calcium, 99% of which is located in the bones, forming an essential component of the inorganic matrix that determines bone strength. In adulthood, the daily calcium requirement is approximately 1 g, while the calcium requirement of children is much higher than this. Pregnant or lactating mothers need about 3 g of calcium daily. Our most important source of calcium is milk and dairy products, but meat and vegetables also contain calcium in smaller amounts (see the chapter titled Osteoporosis). Vitamin D is required for the absorption of calcium from the intestine and its incorporation into the bones (see Vitamin D). In the absence of calcium or vitamin D, rickets develops in children (see rickets) and osteomalacia develops in adults.

Capillaris (capillary):

Hair-thin blood vessel

Capitis femoris necrosis (necrosis of the femoral head):

See under the entry necrosis.

Capitulum:

Small head.

Capsula (capsule):

Capsule / envelope.

Caput:

Head.

Cardio-:

Pertaining to the heart.

Cardiopathia (cardiopathy):

Heart disorder / cardiomyopathy.

Carditis:

Inflammation of the heart.

Carpal (carpalis):

Pertaining to the carpal bones (wrist bones).

Carpo- (carpo-):

Pertaining to the wrist (carpus).

Carpus:

Carpal bone / wrist.

Cartilago:

Cartilage.

Cartilago articularis:

Articular cartilage.

Cauda equina syndrome:

The spinal cord ends at the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra; below the second lumbar vertebra in the spinal canal, nerve roots run down in a horse-tail (cauda equina) formation until their exit points from the spine. Lesions narrowing the spinal canal—such as a herniated disc, tumour, or fracture—can compress these fibres, causing numbness and decreased sensation in the perineal region (saddle anaesthesia), urination and potentially defecation disorders, pain radiating into both lower extremities, and muscle weakness. It mostly necessitates urgent neurosurgical intervention.

Cephal-:

Pertaining to the head.

Cervical rib (costa cervicalis):

A supernumerary (extra) pair of ribs attaches to the last cervical vertebra. It can cause thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS).

Cervicalis (cervical):

Pertaining to the neck.

Cervicobrachialgia:

Pain radiating from the neck into the arm. The pain is frequently accompanied by numbness, and rarely by a decrease in muscle strength. The nerves of the arm originate from the neck. As a result of cervical disorders, these nerves frequently come under compression, which causes the symptoms mentioned above.

Cervix:

Neck.

Chlamydia trachomatis intracellularis:

An intracellular parasite. It is the causative agent of trachoma, a severe eye inflammation that frequently leads to blindness in developing countries, and spreads via droplet infection. It causes chronic conjunctivitis and keratitis (corneal inflammation), and scarring. In Europe, it spreads primarily through sexual contact, acting as the pathogen for urethritis, salpingitis (fallopian tube inflammation), and the venereal disease called lymphogranuloma venereum (venereal lymph node inflammation). It can also cause eye inflammation in newborns of infected mothers. As a late manifestation, Chlamydia trachomatis can cause Reiter's syndrome or reactive arthritis.

Chondritis:

Inflammation of cartilage.

Chondro-:

Pertaining to cartilage.

Chondrocalcinosis:

Calcification of cartilage; appears on an X-ray as a linear or punctate (dot-like) calcification within the cartilage. It is characteristic of pseudogout.

Chondrocalcinosis:

Crystals called calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate precipitate in the articular cartilage, which partly damage the cartilage cells and, upon entering the joint space, can induce inflammation. The underlying process cannot be influenced. Joint symptoms are alleviated by anti-inflammatory drugs.

Chondromalacia patellae:

Cartilage destruction accompanied by localized softening on the articular surface of the kneecap (patella). It can be isolated, or it can be a partial manifestation of knee arthrosis. In the former case, it is mostly unilateral and can appear as early as the second decade of life. Deep pain manifests particularly when standing up from a squat or when sitting with bent knees. The inner edge of the kneecap is tender to pressure. Initially, immobilization in a slightly bent position, administration of anti-inflammatory drugs, followed by gradual loading and exercises can reduce complaints. If this proves ineffective, surgery becomes necessary.

Chondromatosis:

Cartilaginous metaplasia/remodelling of the synovial villi. Bluish-white cartilage nodules form on the villi, which later detach and enter the joint cavity as loose bodies (joint mice). Removal of the chondromas and the most complete surgical removal possible of the synovial membrane are required to prevent severe joint damage.

Chondropathia (chondropathy):

Cartilage degeneration / wear.

Chronic (chronicus):

Chronic, of slow course, long-lasting.

Chronic lumbar pain / back pain:

Chronic low back pain usually develops after an acute, suddenly onset event when a ligament, joint, disc, or muscle may be injured. When regular episodes recur from time to time, often progressively worsening (with stronger symptoms or lasting for longer periods), it is called chronic low back pain. Its symptoms can include pain felt in the lumbar region and stiffness that also hinders straight posture. Its causes can include: facet joint arthrosis, arthritis, disc protrusion, scoliosis, increased kyphosis, fibromyalgia, or piriformis syndrome. Its symptoms include: dull, cramping, or sharp pain in the lumbar region, a burning or numbing sensation in the lower limbs, and muscle weakness in the lower leg or foot. Its treatment: after finding the cause of the complaints, treating the underlying causes provides the solution to the problem.

Chronicus (chronic):

Prolonged / long-standing.

Claudicatio (claudication):

Limping.

Claudicatio intermittens:

Limping that occurs after walking a certain distance. The narrowing of the arteries in the lower extremity causes oxygen deficiency during walking, resulting in calf cramps. The pain subsides upon stopping. A narrow spinal canal (spinal stenosis) can also cause very similar symptoms.

Clavicle (clavicula):

collarbone.

Clavicula (clavicle):

Collarbone.

Clubfoot (pes equinovarus):

A developmental anomaly: The foot points downward and turns inward, shaped like the stave of a barrel.

Clubfoot / Drop foot (pes equinus):

A developmental abnormality/deformity where the foot points downward and the heel does not touch the ground.

Colitis:

Inflammation of the large intestine (colon).

Colitis ulcerosa (ulcerative colitis):

A disease of unknown origin accompanied by chronic inflammation and ulceration of the large intestine. In 10% of patients, it is accompanied by joint alterations, inflammation of one of the large joints of the lower extremities, sacroiliitis, and/or spinal arthritis. The clinical picture can be similar to Bechterew's disease (ankylosing spondylitis). The flare-up of the joint process is associated with the activation of the bowel disease.

Collum:

Neck.

Colon:

Large intestine.

Compensatio (compensation):

Equalization, automatic correction of a faulty function by replacing or repairing the factor causing the defect.

Compressio (compression):

Pressure.

Compression (compressio):

Pressure, compression.

Computer Tomographia (CT, computed tomography):

A special X-ray technique. The X-ray tube moves in a circular arc around the body, and with the help of images taken from multiple projections of the body, it calculates the X-ray absorption capacity of individual points of the body. It produces detail-rich images of the body, section by section.

Concentratio (concentration):

Density.

Conjunctiva:

The conjunctiva of the eye.

Conjunctivitis:

Inflammation of the conjunctiva.

Contractio (contraction):

Shortening.

Contraction (contractio):

Tightening.

Contractura (contracture):

Muscle shortening or shrinkage causing deformity.

Contracture (contractura):

A shrinkage/shortening that causes deformity and a restriction of the joint's range of motion, which can affect the capsule, surrounding muscles, connective tissue, and skin; e.g., Dupuytren's contracture.

Contrast medium / agent:

Substances used in X-ray diagnostics whose radiation-absorbing capacity differs from that of the body. Body cavities, joints, or the space around the spinal cord can be filled with the contrast medium, which outlines the shape of the cavity on the X-ray image.

Copeman's hernia:

A palpable, frequently painful nodule in the region of the sacrum. The fascia above the adipose (fat) tissue weakens, and at the weaker point, the adipose tissue herniates or protrudes out. It occurs primarily in middle-aged and older women. An anti-inflammatory injection given around the nodule and physiotherapy relieve the pain.

Cortico-:

Pertaining to a cortex.

Corticosteroid:

Anti-inflammatory drugs with a structure and effect identical to adrenal cortex hormones.

Corticosteron (corticosterone):

An adrenal cortex hormone.

Costa:

Rib.

Costo-:

Pertaining to a rib.

COX-1 and COX-2:

Cyclooxygenase enzymes participate in various physiological functions. Two isoenzymes are known: COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 is an enzyme constantly present in most cells, presumably playing a role in maintaining the constant internal environment (homeostasis) of the cells. The COX-2 enzyme is produced in inflammatory cells. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2 isoenzymes. The inhibition of COX-1 isoenzymes is responsible for the majority of side effects, while the inhibition of COX-2 is responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect. Theoretically, the more selective a COX-2 inhibitor an anti-inflammatory drug is, the fewer side effects it has. COX-1 inhibition is also utilized in medical treatment; COX-1 enzymes inhibit platelet aggregation and are effective in preventing myocardial infarction (heart attack) and cerebral vascular occlusions (stroke). Today, specific COX-2 inhibitors are also on the market.

Coxa:

Hip.

Coxa saltans:

Snapping hip; a tight band on the outer side of the hip snaps over a bony prominence serving for muscle attachment during movement of the thigh, which can be felt and frequently heard as a snap. It generally has no significance, but if it causes persistent complaints, division (cutting) of the tight band eliminates the phenomenon.

Coxalgia:

Pain in the hip region.

Coxarthrosis:

Osteoarthritis of the hip joint, resulting in a reduction of the joint space. A greater load is placed on the bones due to the loss of the pressure-neutralizing function of the cartilage, thereby degeneration occurs here as well.

Coxitis:

Inflammation of the hip joint.

Cranium:

Skull.

Crepitatio (crepitus / crepitation):

Crackling, grating; a crunching sound heard and also felt by palpation during the movement of joint surfaces due to the unevenness of the surface.

Crohn's disease:

An inflammatory disease of unknown origin affecting specific segments of the small or large intestine. It causes intestinal stricture (narrowing), fistula formation, and adhesions. The leading clinical symptom is diarrhea, which is accompanied by bloating and abdominal pain. Low-grade fever, loss of appetite, and weight loss frequently accompany it. Involvement of the joints has been observed in 20% of cases; arthritis of the knee, hip, sacroiliac joints, and spine is common, and the joint alterations are similar to Bechterew's disease (ankylosing spondylitis).

Cruralis (crural):

Pertaining to the lower leg.

CT examination:

Computed Tomography.

Cubitalis (cubital):

Pertaining to the elbow.

Cubitus:

Elbow.

Cyto-:

Pertaining to a cell.

Cytostatic:

Inhibiting cell division.

Cytostaticum (cytostatic agent):

An agent that inhibits cell division.

Cytotoxic:

Having a toxic/poisonous effect on cells.

Dactylus (dactylus):

Digit / finger / toe.

Decimetre wave therapy:

Ultra-high frequency (UHF) therapy. Decimetre-range electromagnetic waves partially penetrate the skin and adipose tissue; the waves are absorbed mainly in the musculature, causing heating there. It is a pain-relieving, muscle-relaxing, and circulation-improving treatment.

Deformity:

Deformity, structural/shape abnormality.

Degeneratio (degeneration):

Wasting away.

Degenerative:

Describes a process of decline, deterioration

Degenerative disease:

Diseases resulting from the "wear and tear" or "degeneration" of an organ are called by this name, as opposed to inflammatory and neoplastic (cancerous) diseases. They are of unknown origin; they do not simply result from the aging of the organ, but they become increasingly common with advancing age. Deterioration of vision in old age is a consequence of ocular degeneration, and customary heart complaints in the elderly are also mostly the results of degenerative alterations of the heart. The degenerative disease of the joints is cartilage wear, medically termed arthrosis (osteoarthritis). Various damaging factors, joint inflammation, chronic overload, or joint injury can accelerate its development.

Dermatitis (dermatitis):

Inflammation of the skin.

Dermatome:

Nerve roots exiting the spinal cord leave the spine through the foramen intervertebrale located next to the facet joints and run down to the tips of the fingers and toes. During their course, they innervate specific muscles, bones, and skin areas. In the case of the skin, these areas of innervation are called dermatomes, and they are used to determine the affected nerve root or nerve.

Dermatopolymyositis:

Clinically resembles polymyositis.

Dermis:

Skin.

Destructio (destruction):

Ruin, or degradation of tissue.

Destructive:

Destroying.

Diabetes – Diabetes mellitus:

A disorder of carbohydrate metabolism. Musculoskeletal alterations associated with the disease can occur independently of the severity of the condition; these are: periarthritis humeroscapularis, hyperostosis vertebrarum, arthrosis (osteoarthritis), Dupuytren's contracture, claudicatio intermittens, neuropathia diabetica, and neurogenic arthropathy.

Diabetes mellitus (diabetes):

Diadynamic current therapy:

A pulsating direct current is superimposed on a galvanic current. Depending on the current form, it has a pain-relieving, vasodilatory, spasmolytic (antispasmodic), and circulation-improving effect, but it can also be applied for exercising weakened muscles.

Diagnosis:

The recognition and determination of a disease.

Diffuse (diffusus):

Scattered, widespread, or with poorly defined borders.

Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH):

See hyperostosis vertebrarum.

Digitus:

Digit / finger / toe.

Digitus saltans:

"Trigger finger", medically termed Digitus saltans, is the most common alteration presenting with tenosynovial stenosis (narrowing of the tendon sheath) caused by tenosynovitis (tendon sheath inflammation) for which people consult a doctor. Previously, it was primarily a disease of middle-aged housewives; nowadays, it also affects the younger age groups due to the rapid spread of electronic devices and computers. With regular typing or texting for 8–10 hours a day, the tendons and tendon sheaths become overloaded and react with inflammatory alterations. Initially, they merely glide with greater difficulty; later, they operate with catching/snapping (emitting a snapping sound), and finally, they become completely locked. Initial symptoms of the disease: the affected finger moves with greater difficulty during flexion and extension, the patient feels the finger to be thicker, and symptoms worsen by morning, easing during the day but becoming permanent. In some cases, a small, initially painless nodule can also be palpated in the palm in the area of the flexor tendon sheath of the affected finger.

Disability:

The long-term impairment or restriction of an individual's daily life activities expected based on their sex, age, and social standing.

Discitis:

Inflammation of the intervertebral disc.

Discopathia (discopathy):

Flattening of the intervertebral disc; its fluid content and height decrease. This is frequently accompanied by disc protrusion or herniation.

Discus:

Disc / intervertebral disc.

Discus hernia (disc herniation):

Herniation of the intervertebral disc.

Discus protrusio (disc protrusion):

The centre of the intervertebral disc protrudes within the disc toward the spinal canal, thereby compressing the nerves running here, which causes localized pain or pain radiating into the leg. Depending on whether its displacement within the disc reaches the margin or if it has sequestered (broken out), different stages are distinguished.

Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs):

Disease-modifying drugs act on immune cells, attempting to restore their abnormal function. DMARDs that control the disease act slowly but sustainably; they reduce joint inflammation and pain, and are capable of slowing down the progression of the disease, thereby preventing the development of joint damage. Their effect develops after 2–3 months, but remains sustained thereafter. DMARDs make it possible to reduce the dose of steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, which carry many side effects.

Dislocatio (dislocation):

Displacement.

Distorsio (distortion):

Dolor:

Pain.

Doppler examination:

Used for the evaluation of blood vessels. According to the Doppler principle, the frequency of an ultrasound (US) wave emitted and reflected from a stationary surface remains unchanged, whereas the frequency changes when reflected from moving particles. The frequency of the reflected ultrasound changes as a function of the velocity of the flowing red blood cells and the direction of the flow. A suitable device converts this frequency shift into audible sound and a graphical display.

Dorsum:

Back.

Dosis (dose):

Amount.

Dysfunctio (dysfunction):

Disturbed, abnormal function.

Dysostosis:

Defective or abnormal ossification.

Dysplasia (dysplasia):

Improper or abnormal development of an organ. Hip dysplasia (dysplasia coxae): a developmental anomaly of the hip where the acetabulum (hip socket) is shallower than normal, the femoral head contacts the socket over a smaller area, and body weight is distributed over a smaller surface. Consequently, greater pressure is exerted per unit area, which predisposes to the development of arthrosis (osteoarthritis).

Electromyographia (electromyography), EMG:

A method used for the examination of muscles. Muscle activity generates electrical signals. In different diseases, the electrical activity of the muscles alters in a characteristic manner. (The most frequently used EMG device is the electrocardiograph (ECG), which records the electrical signals accompanying myocardial [heart muscle] activity.)

Electrotherapia (electrotherapy):

Medical treatment performed with electric current.

Encephalon (encephalon):

Brain.

Endo-:

Internal / inner.

Endoprothesis (endoprosthesis):

Replacement of a body part with an artificial body part; during joint prosthesis surgery, an artificial joint is implanted in place of the natural joint.

Enteritis:

Inflammation of the intestines, enteritis; mostly inflammation of the small intestine.

Entero-:

Pertaining to the intestines.

Enterocolitis:

Inflammation of the small and large intestines. If only the small intestine is inflamed, it is called enteritis; if only the large intestine, colitis; if both are inflamed at the same time, it is called enterocolitis.

Enthesis:

Muscles are attached by tendons to the bones via the periosteum through Sharpey's fibers. Ligaments connect bones to one another. The area where ligaments and tendons attach to the bone is called the enthesis.

Enthesitis:

Inflammation of the enthesis is called enthesitis. It develops due to muscle overload, injury, or other diseases. This inflammation triggers new bone formation in the periosteum, e.g., a spur in the foot or at the insertion of the Achilles tendon. Its symptoms include: stiffness, pain, and swelling around the area.

Enthesopathia (enthesopathy):

Pain presenting at the site of a tendon insertion. It can be caused by overuse, inflammation, or injury. The tendon insertion is painful, tender to pressure, and swollen. Rest, compresses, physiotherapy treatments, local injection, and in obstinate cases, X-ray irradiation eliminate the complaints. Examples of such enthesopathic pain include jumper's knee and Achilles tendonitis.

Epicondylitis humeri:

Tennis elbow (epicondylitis humeri lateralis), golf elbow (epicondylitis humeri medialis). In tennis elbow, pain presents on the outer side of the elbow, upon pressure, during twisting movements of the wrist, or spontaneously. Its cause is repeated forward-and-backward movement of the wrist (such as the backhand stroke in tennis). In golf elbow, pain presents on the inner side of the elbow; its cause is repeated flexion and pronation (downward turning) movement of the wrist (such as the swing movement in golf).

Epiphyseolysis:

The articular end of the bone detaches and slips along the growth cartilage (epiphyseal plate) before growth is completed.

Epiphyseolysis capitis femoris juvenilis (slipped capital femoral epiphysis):

The femoral head detaches and slips backward on the femoral neck. If it develops suddenly, the symptoms resemble a femoral neck fracture. If it occurs gradually, it is accompanied by prolonged pain in the hip region, limping, and restricted movement of the joint. It is a disease of unknown origin. It usually develops around puberty. Recovery can only be expected from surgery. The best result can be anticipated if fixation is performed early, while the displacement is still minor.

Epiphysis:

The articular end of long bones.

Equinovarus:

A developmental anomaly: the foot points downward and turns inward, shaped like the stave of a barrel.

Erythema:

A hyperemic, inflammatory skin alteration.

Erythro-:

Red.

Exacerbatio (exacerbation):

A flare-up or worsening of the disease.

Exanthema:

Skin rash / exanthem.

Exostosis:

Bone outgrowth.

Exsudatum (exudate):

A protein-rich fluid that passes from the blood into the inflammatory area during an inflammatory reaction.

Extensio (extension):

Straightening.

Extensor:

A group of muscles that participates in the extension of the given limb.

Externa:

For external use; medicine applied in the form of ointments or poultices/dressings.

Extra-:

Outside / external.

Extremitas (extremity):

Limb.

Facies:

Face.

Factor:

Component / constituent.

Familial:

Pertaining to a family, clustering within a family, or an inherited/hereditary disease.

Fascia:

The fascia or myofascia is a dense, rigid tissue that surrounds and envelops muscles and bones, supports internal organs, and anchors the skin to the underlying structures. The external anchoring fascia is very strong and elastic. Its tensile strength is 9000 N. Microscopically, it resembles a spiderweb that covers the body from the top of the head to the toes; it is endless—like a circle—because it loops back into itself, thereby connecting every part of the body with one another. In its healthy state, it is relaxed, soft, and wavy, which allows it to stretch without shortening. It helps maintain correct posture and elasticity, and aids in executing proper movements. It neutralizes minor traumas, but reacts to larger ones (injuries, surgeries, or poor posture) with tensions that appear throughout the body and accumulate in their effects, which can only be eliminated through myofascial release.

Fascitis (fasciitis):

Inflammation of the fascia / muscle sheath.

Fatigue fracture:

A condition where continuous, heavy loading causes microtrauma in the tissues. These do not cause a complete rupture in the tissue, but the fibers of the tissue—in the case of bone, individual bone trabeculae—rupture or break. When these microtraumas accumulate, a major injury or fatigue (stress) fracture occurs.

Femur:

Thigh bone.

Fibra:

Fiber, strand.

Fibromyalgia:

A condition where the muscles become denser, nodular to the touch, and tender to pressure as a result of overuse or transient circulatory disorders. Sustained unidirectional strain (dentists, hairdressers), sleep disturbances, tense nervous states, workplace conflicts, and anxiety predispose to its development. It primarily develops in young women. The pain is diffuse, most frequently presenting in the muscles of the neck, shoulders, back, lower back, and pelvis. Very sensitive, dense nodules—so-called myogelotic nodules—can be palpated within the musculature. Physiotherapy, massage, physical therapy treatments, packs/poultices, and swimming can alleviate the complaints, but for ultimate recovery, the patient often needs to learn techniques for physical and mental relaxation.

Fibromyositis:

Inflammation of muscle fibres.

Fibrosis:

The formation of fibrous tissue. If the cells of an organ die, their place may be taken over by connective tissue.

Fibrositis:

Inflammation of muscle and connective tissue.

Fibrosus:

Fibrous.

Fibula:

Calf bone.

Flat foot (pes planus):

Children naturally have flat feet until the age of three, as the medial longitudinal arch of the foot develops by the age of five. Flatfoot is the condition where the inner (medial) longitudinal arch of the sole collapses. Its cause can be an inherited predisposition, minor or major injuries, rheumatoid arthritis, or diabetes. It rarely causes complaints, but if it becomes symptomatic, the cause is usually a change in working conditions, a minor injury, sudden weight gain, excessive running, standing, walking, jumping, or poorly constructed shoes. The most serious danger of flatfoot is that it causes static changes extending to the entire body, which are worth preventing with orthotic arch supports (insoles).

Flat foot (pes planus):

Children naturally have flat feet until the age of three, as the longitudinal arch of the foot develops by the age of five. We call it flat foot when the inner (medial) longitudinal arch along the length of the sole collapses. Its causes can include hereditary predisposition, minor or major injuries, rheumatoid arthritis, or diabetes. It rarely causes complaints, but if it becomes symptomatic, the cause may be: a change in working posture, a minor injury, sudden weight gain, excessive running, standing, walking, jumping, or poorly constructed shoes. The most serious danger of flat feet is that it causes static changes extending to the whole body, which are worth preventing with flat foot orthotic insoles (arch supports).

Flexion:

Bending.

Forestier's disease:

The anterior ligament of the spine ossifies, resulting in a generally painless stiffness of the spine. Not infrequently, ligamentous ossifications can also be detected by X-ray on the bones of the skull, pelvis, and limbs, without causing complaints. The alteration frequently presents in older, obese men, and its prevalence increases with age. It is often associated with diabetes.

Four-cell galvanic bath:

The older name for the partial electric bath, although modern machines now use other current forms in addition to galvanic current. The patient places their limb or limbs into 1, 2, 3, or 4 tubs filled with body-temperature (34–35°C) water, with electrodes mounted on the walls of the tubs. It is used for the simultaneous electrical treatment of the limbs, yielding pain-relieving, metabolism-promoting, circulation-enhancing, and nerve-excitability-increasing effects. Medications can be introduced through it in the same manner as with iontophoresis.

Freyka pillow:

Used for the treatment of congenital hip dysplasia and dislocation. It envelops the infant's waist and both thighs, securing the thighs in 90-degree abduction. It can be adjusted on the body with buckles and secured with canvas straps.

Frozen shoulder:

(Adhesive capsulitis). Frozen shoulder syndrome is a medical condition involving shoulder pain and stiffness. Symptoms generally worsen gradually over months and years. In the first months of the syndrome (2–9 months), increasingly severe shoulder pain is typically experienced, followed by shoulder stiffness. Shoulder stiffness can prevent the routine and problem-free performance of everyday activities. In severe cases, complete immobility of the shoulder occurs. The condition is capable of improving over a period of years. Frozen shoulder syndrome can be caused by the inflammation, thickening, and scarring of the shoulder joint capsule. The shoulder joint capsule is a very loose joint capsule because a very large number of tendons, muscles, and bony structures run through a limited, small area at the shoulder joint, and joint mobility is required for a large range of motion. Furthermore, thanks to the spacious joint capsule, there is less friction between the structures, which is frequently responsible for inflammations developing in the shoulder. If the capsule becomes inflamed and thickens, it not only causes pain but also leaves even less space in the shoulder (more friction, more irritation), causing further problems. It is not entirely clear to what phenomenon or activity frozen shoulder syndrome can be attributed; however, based on observations, there are predisposing factors, which include previous shoulder injury or surgical intervention, diabetes, Dupuytren's contracture, heart disease, or stroke.
The necessity of treating frozen shoulder syndrome depends on the extent to which the shoulder pain and the restriction of the range of motion escalate. In certain mild cases, symptoms resolve on their own over months or years. Even in these cases, treatment accelerates recovery. The basis of treatment is the reduction of inflammation and the elimination of pain, which is a difficult task because moving the arm continuously irritates the inflamed part. The restriction of the range of motion is no coincidence, which is why it is recommended to seek the help of a physiotherapist for 100% rehabilitation.

Frozen shoulder:

Adhesive capsulitis.

Functio (function):

operation

Galvanic therapy:

Treatment performed with a direct current of constant intensity. It has pain-relieving, vasodilatory, and metabolism-improving effects. With its help, medications can also be introduced into the deeper layers of the skin, e.g., iontophoresis.

Ganglion on the tendon sheath:

A fluid-filled nodule developing most frequently in the wrist region. It usually represents only a cosmetic problem and does not require medical attention. If it causes complaints, its surgical removal may be considered.

Gastritis:

Inflammation, irritation, or injury of the gastric mucosa (stomach lining). It can occur suddenly or gradually. Irritation of the gastric mucosa can be caused by excessive alcohol consumption, chronic vomiting, or the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Other causes may include Helicobacter pylori bacterial infection, bile reflux (when large amounts of bile empty into the stomach instead of the gallbladder), or other infections. Its symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, bloating, heartburn, loss of appetite, and frequent hiccups.

Gastro-:

Pertaining to the stomach.

Gastroprotection:

Protection of the stomach using GPA (GastroProtective Agents). It is applied in case of medications that are administered to the patient for their anti-inflammatory effect, for example, but have the side effect of irritating the gastric mucosa. Gastroprotective medications and foods thicken the mucous layer of the gastric mucosa, thereby protecting the stomach wall.

Gastroscopia (gastroscopy):

Endoscopy of the stomach (stomach hookup/scoping). Examination of the gastric mucosa with the help of appropriate optics; with its use, material can be obtained for histological examination (biopsy).

Gene:

The elementary unit of heredity; a carrier of transmissible characteristics located within the cell nucleus.

Gene therapy:

Immune cells and the cellular components of inflammation are under genetic regulation. With the help of viruses (viral vectors), attempts are made to introduce genes carrying specific functions into cells to correct a damaged function. For the time being, it is in an experimental stage, but it is a promising new possibility in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis as well as numerous other diseases.

Generic drug / preparation:

Typically older, previously developed pharmaceutical preparations where the active compound is no longer protected by patent coverage; therefore, any pharmaceutical factory can manufacture them.

Genesis:

Origin, development, or derivation.

Genetics:

The science of heredity).

Genu:

Knee.

Glandula:

Gland.

Glandula suprarenalis (adrenal gland):

An endocrine gland. The two adrenal glands are located on the upper part of the kidneys and consist of two parts: the cortex and the medulla. The hormone of the medulla accelerates the pulse and raises blood pressure. The so-called cortical hormones, medically termed corticosteroids, are produced in the cortex; they regulate salt-and-water balance as well as carbohydrate metabolism, and they also produce sex hormones. Certain members of this group are potent anti-inflammatory agents and are utilized as medications.

Gonitis:

Inflammation of the knee joint.

Gout (arthritis urica):

An inflammatory joint disease. It is caused by uric acid (monosodium urate) crystals precipitating in the joints.

Hallux:

Great toe / big toe.

Hallux rigidus:

Painful stiffness of the metatarsophalangeal (base) joint of the big toe, which develops as a result of arthrotic (osteoarthritic) alterations of the joint. It makes the roll-over of the forefoot difficult during walking. Mobilization of the joint, shoe inserts, wearing shoes equipped with a rolling sole, and X-ray irradiation of the joint alleviate the complaints. In case of frequent inflammation and permanent complaints, surgery is necessary.

Hallux valgus:

Bunion; the inward turning of the big toe, deviation/overlapping onto the other toes.

Hammer toe (digitus malleus):

A frequent deformity of the toes; as a result of the collapse of the transverse arch of the foot, the balance between the flexor and extensor muscles of the toe is disrupted, causing the proximal phalanx to turn toward the dorsum of the foot (back of the foot), while the second and third phalanges turn toward the sole. Shoes frequently rub against the joint protruding between the proximal and middle phalanges, leading to the formation of a callus there. The skin can become ulcerated, suppurate (become infected), and turn very painful. In the initial stage, comfortable shoes and inserts usually eliminate the complaints. In more severe cases, surgery is required.

Heel spur (periostitis calcanei):

A bone spur developing on the plantar surface or above the heel of the calcaneus, caused by strong traction from muscle-attaching tendons or other fasciae. It occurs as a result of static abnormalities (e.g., flat feet) or Achilles tendon overload. The patient feels as though there is a nail under their heel with every step. Symptoms are generally eliminated by a heel pad with a cutout lined with soft foam (laticel), highly comfortable shoes that correct heel alignment, local injections if necessary, or X-ray radiation therapy. Surgery is rarely required.

Hernia disci:

Intervertebral disc herniations; herniation of multiple discs (plural form of discus hernia).

HIV (human immunodeficiency virus):

AIDS.

HLA complexes:

Genes encoding cell-surface antigens that are responsible for foreign organ rejection in organ transplantation and also play an important role in the regulation of immune responses. Certain diseases occur more frequently in specific HLA types; for instance, Bechterew's disease (ankylosing spondylitis) and other seronegative spondylarthritis are 90 times more common in individuals carrying the HLA-B27 gene than in people without the HLA-B27 gene.

Humerus:

Upper arm bone.

Humpback (kyphosis):

In colloquial language, "humpback" is used when the thoracic curve of the spine becomes more pronounced. In its primary form in adolescence, this is a postural disorder caused by the weakening of the back muscles due to a sedentary lifestyle, or due to psychological reasons (sudden increase in body height or breast development). In its secondary form, it is a partial manifestation of some other disease. Such diseases can be scoliosis (spinal curvature), Scheuermann's disease, or in older age, osteoporosis and Ankylosing Spondylitis (Bechterew's disease). During examination, we observe whether the curvature flattens out when bending forward or lying prone. In this case, we speak of a functional curve. If the curve persists in these positions, it is advisable to consult a specialist to determine the background of the alteration through targeted examinations. Even in the case of a functional curve, muscle strengthening must be initiated, because incorrect posture can cause secondary changes—such as respiratory insufficiency or subsequent back pain.

Hyperabductios syndroma (hyperabduction syndrome):

Hyperabduction means raising the arm from the side over the head. If predisposed individuals keep their arms elevated to the side for a sustained period—for example, sleeping with their arms under their head—or repeat this movement frequently (e.g., during ceiling painting), they may overstretch the vessels and nerves running to the arm. This can cause transient neurovascular compression, known as thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS). The nerves and vessels running into the arm pass between the pectoralis minor muscle (m. pectoralis minor) and the coracoid process (processus coracoideus) of the scapula; thus, in this position, they become overstretched and compressed. This can cause numbness, a burning sensation, or sensory loss. Patients may also experience clumsiness or weakness during repeated activity. Its treatment is performed via muscle relaxation; treating the trigger points of the affected muscle can also be of great help.

Hyperostosis:

Hypertrophy of bone tissue, or the ossification of ligaments and tendon insertion sites.

Hyperostosis vertebrarum (Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, DISH, Forestier's disease):

Hyperthyreosis (hyperthyroidism):

Overactivity of the thyroid gland, in which case the thyroid gland produces too many of the hormones that regulate cellular metabolism. These thyroid hormones are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The function of the thyroid gland is regulated by a pituitary hormone (TSH). We check the values of these in laboratory results if a disorder of thyroid function is suspected. Symptoms of overactivity include: agitation, hyperactivity, nervousness, hand tremors, weight loss despite constant hunger, sweating, rapid heartbeat (tachycardia), decreased heat tolerance, altered menstruation, hair loss, and sleep disturbances.

Hyperuricaemia (hyperuricemia):

A disease resulting from a metabolic disorder. In the case of gout, the uric acid content of the blood increases, and urate salts deposit in various tissues, primarily in the joints. In typical cases, it presents in episodes/attacks, most commonly in the form of inflammation developing on the big toe (podagra), but it can occur in other joints as well. Its symptoms may include: restricted movement, high fever, dark-coloured urine, constipation, large volume of urine, intense palpitations, redness, shininess, and swelling of the skin over the joint, pain over the joint, tracheitis (bronchial catarrh), gastric complaints, tender liver, enlarged liver, and deformity of the joints.

Hypothyreosis (hypothyroidism):

Decreased function of the thyroid gland, the symptoms of which usually develop over years and depend on the degree of underactivity. Its most common symptoms are: fatigue, weight gain, or a feeling as if one has aged years. As hormone production decreases, more and more symptoms develop, including: fatigue, feeling cold, constipation, dry skin, weight gain, puffy face, hoarseness, muscle weakness, elevated blood cholesterol levels, muscle cramps, pain and stiffness, joint pain, stiffness, and swelling, heavier menstruation, thinned hair, slow heartbeat (bradycardia), depression, and forgetfulness. Its causal treatment is performed via hormone replacement, and the accompanying symptoms are reduced with physiotherapy.

Idiopathias (idiopathic):

Of unknown origin.

Ilium:

Hip.

Immune system:

The body's defensive system. Its task is to distinguish the body's own materials from foreign proteins, thereby protecting the integrity of the organism. It recognizes foreign substances, so-called antigens (e.g., bacteria, viruses), and renders them harmless. The body produces a counter-substance against antigens; this is the so-called antibody.

Immunity:

Innate or subsequently acquired protection against foreign proteins, pathogens, and infectious diseases.

Immunization:

It means the same as immunomodulation.

Immunomodulation:

Influencing immune reactions: the goal is to stimulate the immune system in immunodeficiency states (immunostimulation); to suppress the immune response responsible for the rejection of the transplanted organ in organ transplantation and to suppress the pathological immune response in autoimmune disorders (immunosuppression); and to induce protection against pathogens in the prevention of infectious diseases (immunization).

Immunostimulation:

Stimulation of the body's immune system.

Immunosuppression:

Suppression of the body's immune system in order to avoid pathological or excessive responses.

Infarctus (infarction):

Tissue necrosis (death) developing as a result of circulatory disturbance and lack of oxygen.

Infectio (infection):

A disease established by a living pathogen.

Inflammatio (inflammation):

A defensive reaction to unusual or excessively intense environmental stimuli, during which cells and biologically active substances participating in defense enter the damaged tissue in large quantities, which can also damage the inflamed body part itself. Inflamed tissue is red, warm, swollen, and painful. In favourable cases, it leads to full recovery, but in some instances, it results in tissue destruction and scarring.

Inflammatio (inflammation):

A defensive reaction given to unusual or excessively intense environmental stimuli, during which cells and biologically active substances participating in defense enter the damaged tissue in large quantities, which can also damage the inflamed body part itself. Inflamed tissue is red, warm, swollen, and painful. In favourable cases, it leads to full recovery, but in some instances, it results in tissue destruction and scarring.

Infrared therapy (Sollux lamp):

Infrared radiation absorbed by the body is converted into heat at a depth of approximately 1–2 cm. It enhances circulation and tissue metabolism, and has a pain-relieving effect. It is an effective method before exercise therapy to facilitate the mobilization of stiff joints.

Interferential and ultrasound therapy, combined:

In this treatment, the effects of both modalities are combined. One electrode is placed and secured on the skin, while the other electrode is replaced by the treatment head of the ultrasound. The beating (interferential) current is generated between the two electrodes, while micro cavitation is simultaneously induced with the ultrasound head. This increases the tissue-relaxing, muscle-relaxing, circulation-enhancing, metabolism-promoting, and anti-inflammatory effects of the treatment.

Interferential current therapy:

Through the crossing of two medium-frequency currents, so-called interferences or beats are created. It has a pain-relieving, circulation-enhancing, and metabolism-promoting effect even in deeper tissue layers. Newer devices provide the opportunity to combine electrical treatment with the simultaneous application of a rhythmic, pulsating-suction massage, which greatly improves local circulation.

Iontophoresis:

With the help of a galvanic current, medications possessing electrical charges—and thus transportable by the current—are introduced into the deeper layers of the skin. The galvanic current and the medication exert their effects jointly, which depends on the administered drug. It has a good effect in cases where a localized effect is desired, or where oral administration of the medication needs to be avoided (e.g., non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs). It is like an injection without a needle. The effects of the galvanic current include: anti-inflammatory, hyperemic (inducing redness), circulation-enhancing, pain-reducing, and metabolism-promoting, and it improves the conduction capacity of nerves. To this is added the effect of the drug, which is usually a pain reliever or a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.

Iris:

The ring-shaped disc surrounding the pupil in the eye.

Ischiadicus (ischiadic):

Pertaining to the ischium (sit bone); nervus ischiadicus means the sciatic nerve.

Ischias (sciatica):

Sciatic nerve pain; pain radiating from the lumbar region into the lower limb as a result of disease or compression of the sciatic nerve.

Joint (articulatio):

The sites where bones connect with one another and move relative to each other.

Joint capsule (capsula articularis):

Holds the bone ends together and encloses the joint cavity.

Joint ligaments (ligamentum):

Bundles consisting of connective tissue located within the outer layer of the joint capsule or independently of it. They serve to reinforce the capsule in places exposed to greater strain and to prevent overstretching. Their mechanical protective role comes from the fact that they immediately tighten mechanically upon movement, whereas in protection provided by muscles, there is a 0.1-second delay (synaptic delay) which allows micromovements between the bones, thereby causing wear of the articular cartilages. In the event of ligament tears or injuries, the probability of joint wear is weighed against the surgical risk and the benefits expected from the surgery. The necessity of surgery is determined based on this.

Joint mouse (corpus liberum):

Loose bodies located within the joint cavity are called by this name. They can cause joint pain and locking. Recovery can only be expected from the removal of the loose body.

Joint range of motion (range of motion, ROM):

The distance or angle that a given joint covers in one direction for a specific type of movement, between the two endpoints of its motion capability. For example, shoulder ROM regarding arm raising (elevation) is 180°. In this case, we raise our arm from next to the body to next to the head. The maximal ROM is determined for every possible movement of every joint, and during examination, the actually achieved ROM is recorded so that movements can be developed from there toward the maximum.

Jumper's knee (patellar tendinitis / patellar tendinopathy):

Inflammation occurs at the insertion site of the patellar tendon or the quadriceps tendon. It is essentially an enthesitis caused by the mechanical stress of jumping and landing. The cause is repetitive loading on the tendons. In addition to jumpers, it is common among soccer players, cyclists, and track and field athletes, as well as individuals who perform similar repetitive activities during their daily lives. Symptoms begin slowly. Initially, they appear only after exertion, then during and after exertion; at first, they do not hinder athletic performance, but later even this becomes difficult. If left untreated (which is rare due to the pain), complete tendon rupture may occur. In establishing the diagnosis, ultrasound and MRI examinations can help alongside physical examination, as these show the tendon structure best. The first step of treatment is identifying the muscle imbalances that led to the problem; resolving these imbalances allows the tendon inflammation to subside.

Laser radiation:

A precisely directable, highly focusable light beam produced by a special light source (laser). High energy density can be achieved with it, and therefore it can be used for non-destructive cutting during surgical operations.

Laser therapy:

With a laser, individual cells and even specific parts of cells can be selectively irradiated. A low-intensity laser beam stimulates wound healing and increases the strength of the forming scar. It is also effective for bruises, strains, tissue tears (tendon, ligament, muscle), bone fractures, overexertion, and the treatment of degenerative changes. Its effects include: muscle-relaxing, blood circulation-enhancing, and anti-inflammatory.

Lateralis (lateral):

Side.

LE cells:

Abnormal white blood cells found in the blood of patients suffering from systemic lupus erythematosus.

Lesion (laesio):

Injury.

Leucocyte (leucocyta):

White blood cell. Several types are distinguished.

Leucocytopenia:

A decrease in the number of white blood cells in the blood.

Ligament (ligamentum):

fibrous band (e.g., ligaments of the ankle).

Local (localis):

Relating to only one part of the body.

Local injection:

An injection given into the diseased, painful body part, which usually contains anaesthetic and/or anti-inflammatory substances.

Loose / Flail knee (genu laxum):

In an intact knee joint, the capsule and ligaments prevent the joint from moving sideways or extending beyond 180 degrees. If some injury or disease damages these, the knee can tilt forward-backward or sideways. Walking becomes unstable, and the knee easily buckles, becomes sprained, or gets inflamed. In mild cases, a knee brace may be sufficient to support the knee; in more severe cases, surgery is required.

Lordosis:

The forward-convex curve of the spine in the cervical and lumbar sections. The flattening of this curve can lead to complaints.

Lumbago:

Lumbar, sacral pain, muscle spasm. A general term for lumbar spine pain. The two concepts (lumbago and low back pain) are often used interchangeably. The underlying causes of lumbago are complex and not always easily identified. Two factors can help discover its causes. One is the type of pain (how it hurts, what alleviates or worsens the complaints). The other is the distribution of symptoms: where do you feel the complaints? In your lower back, in your leg, or perhaps both? If both, which one is worse? Does it radiate to any other area of the body? The diagnosis can be complemented by imaging procedures (MRI, CT). Its treatment is determined according to what cause lies behind the pain.

Lumbalgia:

Low back pain, lumbar pain.

Lumbar (lumbalis, lumbar):

Pertaining to the loins/lower back.

Lumbar puncture / spinal tap (lumbalpunctio):

Spinal tap, during which cerebrospinal fluid is sampled from the spinal canal for diagnostic purposes. It usually has a diagnostic indication, providing a picture of the state of the central nervous system in case of suspicions such as bacterial meningitis, subarachnoid haemorrhage, or Guillain-Barré syndrome. Occasionally, it can also have therapeutic benefits, e.g., in the case of intracranial haemorrhage.

Lupus:

A chronic inflammatory disease that occurs when the body's immune system attacks its own organs and tissues. Affected organs can include: joints, skin, kidneys, blood cells, brain, heart, and lungs. Its most characteristic sign is a butterfly-wing-shaped rash appearing on the cheeks. Its treatment focuses on: alleviating symptoms, reducing inflammation, preventing flares, and preventing organ damage.

Luxation (Luxatio / dislocation):

Due to an accident or developmental abnormality, the articular head leaves the cavity (socket).

Lyme arthritis / Borreliosis:

An infectious disease. Its pathogen enters the body through a tick bite. In a typical case, a red skin rash expands toward the edges (erythema migrans). It can be accompanied by fever, headache, joint pain, and muscle pain. Later, the previous symptoms disappear, and then joint, nerve, heart, and meningeal inflammation may appear. Months or years after the infection, the so-called chronic stage of the disease can develop in the form of polyarthritis (multi-joint inflammation), neuritis (nerve inflammation), and skin lesions. Following the infection, the antibody produced against the pathogen can be detected in the patients' blood. Timely antibiotic treatment usually cures the disease.

Lympha:

Lymph.

Lymphadenitis:

Inflammation of the lymph nodes.

Lymphangitis:

Inflammation of the lymph vessels.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):

An imaging modality of various organs produced by utilizing the magnetic resonance of protons, without ionizing radiation. The images are reconstructed with the help of a computer. Images can be generated in different planes using this technique. Pathological changes of soft tissues—such as the nervous system, bone marrow, articular cartilages forming the joints, intervertebral discs, and ligaments—can be precisely investigated with its help. In the presence of magnetizable metals implanted into the body, the patient cannot be examined in every case; if you have had a surgery involving a metal implant, definitely mention it to the physician initiating and performing the examination.

Magnetotherapy / Magnetic field therapy:

Under the effect of electric current, a pulsating magnetic field is generated using a treatment coil. Its pain-relieving, muscle-relaxing, and bone-formation-promoting (following fractures) effects are well known. During electromagnetic treatments, we act upon the charge of molecular systems in a way that induces energetic changes in electron orbits. Thus, we can influence all cells of our body by facilitating the execution of biochemical reactions, aiding the synthesis of specific proteins, improving and shortening wound healing, ensuring more intense blood circulation down to the capillaries, increasing tissue oxygenation, reducing blood pressure and heart rate, and decreasing autonomic tension thereby supporting relaxation, improving bone synthesis, strengthening connective tissues, and inducing a more robust immune defense. In the case of musculoskeletal diseases and for pain relief, it is applied in combination with other therapies. Its effects include: pain-relieving, anti-inflammatory, trophic, antispasmodic (spasmolytic), and vasodilator.

Malleolus:

Lateral and medial ankle bone.

Manifest:

Presenting with obvious (visible) symptoms.

Manipulation:

Treatment, procedure. By joint manipulation, we mean the procedure where a qualified manual therapy specialist puts back into place a joint that has slightly displaced from its position and became stuck or "blocked" in this position, which is often painful and immovable. The blockade resolves with a click, and the complaints often disappear immediately.

Manual therapy:

The treatment procedure where, following a complete physiotherapy examination, a trained manual therapist restores the lack of joint play (joint blockade) causing the complaints, the lack of nerve mobility, the loss of range of motion in individual joints, and connective tissue stiffness using mobilization or manipulation techniques.

Manus:

Hand.

Massage:

The relaxation of muscles performed with hands, fingers, or some device. It is generally used to relieve pain, muscle stiffness, or stress. Massage can take place on a bed, in a special massage chair, on a mattress, or on the floor. In medicine, we most frequently use the strokes of classical Swedish massage, but massage types adapted from Eastern medicine are also becoming increasingly widespread. The use of aquatic relaxation methods is expanding.

Medial:

Situated toward the middle (midline).

Meniscus:

Crescent-shaped articular fibrocartilage in the knee joint, serving to deepen the articular cavity.

Meniscus tear / lesion (laesio):

The medial and lateral menisci play an important role in distributing pressures affecting the knee joint. During flexion and extension of the knee, the small ligaments attached to them always move them between the weight-bearing surfaces. If a twisting motion also acts on the lower leg during flexion-extension, the meniscus can become impinged, resulting in a tear within it, or a piece may tear off, often accompanied by a stabbing pain. Its symptoms: In the case of a small tear, mild pain and swelling appear in the knee, which disappear within 2–3 weeks. In a moderate tear, pain and swelling appear on the inner or outer side of the knee, developing slowly over days. The knee is stiff, and its range of motion is reduced. Severe pain occurs upon weight-bearing and twisting movements, so the patient is often unable to walk, and squatting or climbing stairs becomes impossible. The symptoms disappear within 1–2 weeks but return and recur upon weight-bearing. In the case of a large tear, a piece completely tears off from the meniscus into the joint cavity. It becomes a joint mouse (loose body), which can cause locking in the knee and wears down the articular cartilage. The pain and swelling likewise disappear within 2–3 weeks. The treatment for a meniscus tear is usually arthroscopic surgery.

Microtrauma:

Tiny injury; usually used when continuous, heavy load generates microtraumas in the tissues. These do not cause a complete tear in the tissue, but the strands of the tissue—or individual trabeculae in the case of bone—tear or break. If these microtraumas accumulate, a major injury or a stress fracture occurs.

Microwave therapy:

High-frequency electrical treatment. The electrical energy of the microwave is absorbed at a depth of 2.5–3 cm and converted into heat. It is suitable for treating superficial processes. It has pain-relieving and circulation-improving effects.

Mobility impairment / Restricted mobility:

Used in two different senses. One is when the joint's range of motion decreases. This is most frequently caused by a disease of the joint or the tissues around the joint. The other is the 1980 WHO definition—which we use more generally—according to which, due to the impairment of the locomotor organ, the individual is restricted in their movements, and therefore cannot perform the motor activities characteristic of them. It can manifest in daily self-care or in mobility outside the home.

Mon–, Mono–:

One, single.

Monarthritis:

Inflammation of a single joint.

Morbus:

Disease. Generally used to designate diseases carrying an author's (eponymous) name. E.g., Morbus Bechterew (Ankylosing Spondylitis), Morbus Scheuermann (Scheuermann's disease).

Mud:

Used for preparing mud baths and packs. It is a malleable material with high specific gravity and high heat-retention capacity. We distinguish between organic and inorganic muds. Organic muds (peats) possess a higher mineral content. The most characteristic effect of muds is slow heat absorption, extraordinarily good heat-retention capacity, and slow heat release. The latter enables muds to be used at 42°C. Among the properties of muds, grain size must be highlighted, which must not exceed 0.02–0.002 mm. This determines water-absorption capacity and malleability. Its effects are defined according to its mineral content. For example, muds containing iodine and bromine have anti-inflammatory effects, reduce the body's uric acid levels, and have cartilage-regenerating effects. In our region, the iron-rich and sulphurous medicinal mud of Kolop and the radium-containing medicinal mud of Hajdúszoboszló are the most well-known. Heated up, they are used for mud pack therapy. We recommend it for the following conditions: in the treatment of chronic musculoskeletal diseases, it is indicated both for degenerative/calcifying forms and for inflammatory diseases, and it is applied in certain orthopaedic, neurological, internal medicine, and gynaecological diseases. Thanks to the heat-conducting property of the method, it is an excellent muscle relaxant, while simultaneously having a beneficial effect on cartilage and connective tissues. It is a significant anti-inflammatory modality, but thanks to the relaxation effect of the treatment, it also functions well as a well-being enhancement program. The treatment is always preceded by a medical consultation and a blood pressure check. One form of mud treatment is parafango, where the heat-retention capacity of paraffin is used together with the mineral content of the mud. The treatment usually lasts 20 minutes.

Musculus:

Muscle.

Myalgia:

Muscle pain, most frequently caused by the overuse or overstretching of a muscle or muscle group. If there is no traumatic event in the background, the most frequent cause of muscle pain is a viral infection.

Mycoplasma pneumoniae:

A pathogen spreading via droplet infection, causing upper respiratory tract catarrh, pneumonia, and as a late manifestation, reactive arthritis.

Myelography:

Contrast X-ray examination of the spinal cord. A contrast medium is administered into the spinal canal, outlining a potential herniated disc or tumour. In recent years, CT and MRI examinations have largely replaced it.

Myelon (mielon):

Spinal cord.

Myo– (mio–):

Muscle-.

Myofascia:

The myofascia or fascia is a dense, tough tissue that surrounds and covers muscles and bones, supports internal organs, and anchors the skin to the underlying structures. The external investing fascia is very strong and flexible. Its tensile strength is 9000 N. Microscopically, it resembles a spiderweb that covers the body from the top of the head to the toes, being endless—like a circle—because it returns into itself, thereby connecting every part of the body with one another. In its healthy state, it is relaxed, soft, and wavy, which is why it is capable of tightening without shortening. It helps maintain correct posture and flexibility, and carry out proper movements. It neutralizes minor traumas, but reacts to larger ones (injuries, surgeries, or poor posture) with tensions that appear throughout the body and accumulate in their effects, which can only be eliminated through myofascial release.

Myofascial pain syndrome:

Chronic pain in which pressure applied to painful muscle nodules (trigger points) causes pain, not only locally but also radiating to other parts of the body. Its cause can be frequent, repeated, or prolonged contraction of the muscles.

Myofascial release:

A manual therapy treatment that directly improves the condition of the fascia. It releases the rigid parts formed within it, allowing the fascia to relax back and return to its proper state. It is a deep tissue treatment that results in long-lasting relaxation through its deep, slow pressure. It modifies, for example, headaches, low back and thoracic spine pain, neck stiffness, shoulder and other sports injuries, chronic knee pain, tennis elbow, and other forms of periostitis (inflammation of the periosteum).

Myofascial trigger point:

The MTrP is a hyperirritable spot in the fascia covering the muscles. Upon palpation, a muscle nodule and an associated taut band can be felt. Its formation can be linked to a definable minor or major trauma or chronic overload. Such overload can be a frequently repeated movement (painting 100 meters of fence, an all-day unusual physical strain) or static poor posture. The circulation and nutrition of the tense MTrP deteriorate, so it remains invisibly present in the muscle in a self-sustaining manner. In this state, it does not cause pain, it only impairs the flexibility of the given muscle. These invisible MTrPs are called latent TrPs. Under the effect of a new trauma affecting them, they can become activated; from then on, they cause local or radiating pain as well. Recently, their presence has also become detectable via MRI examination, but their verification via palpation during physical examination is simpler. If the pressure applied to them triggers a pain that is "familiar or customary" to the patient, we have indirectly verified the MTrP as the cause of the pain, and we treat it accordingly with ice and heating, pressure, or dry needling (inserting a needle).

Myogelosis:

It is the archaic name for myofascial trigger point (MTrP). It developed because a gel-like consistency was believed to be discovered within the MTrP in the muscle, thus receiving the name myo-gelosis.

Myogenic:

Of muscle origin.

Myositis:

Inflammation of the muscle.

Necrosis:

Death of a cell, tissue, or organ within the living organism. Avascular necrosis of the femoral head (necrosis capitis femoris) is tissue death developing in the femoral head due to blood vessel occlusion. Its exact cause is unknown, but diabetes, lipid metabolism disorders, and excessive alcohol consumption play a role in its development. Initially, the disease presents with pain occurring only upon weight-bearing; later, the pain becomes constant and radiates to the knee and thigh. Under weight-bearing, the dead bone can collapse, which can lead to early, severe arthrosis. In early, non-advanced cases, there is hope to save the femoral head through surgery, or less frequently, through half a year of non-weight-bearing (offloading). If the hip has collapsed and deformed, joint replacement surgery (prosthesis) can be performed.

Nervus:

Nerve.

Neuralgia:

Nerve pain. No anatomical lesion can be found in its background. Its cause can be a circulatory disturbance within the nerve or pressure exerted by a muscle or bone. Its treatment: the cause of the nerve's movement restriction must be identified, and its internal circulation improved through nerve mobilization exercises.

Neuritis:

Peripheral neuritis (nerve inflammation) that causes pain, numbness, false or bizarre sensations, or loss of function. It can be the inflammation of a single nerve, but it can also affect the entire peripheral nervous system. Its cause can be injury, infection, Lyme disease, chemical effects (excessive alcohol consumption), or it can develop after radiation therapy. In addition to alcoholism, autoimmune processes, vitamin B12 or B1 deficiency, diabetes, tumorous processes, and hypothyroidism can also lie in its background.

Neurogenic:

Of neural origin.

Neurogenic arthropathy (neurogen arthropathia):

It presents mainly on the lower limbs, the foot, and the ankle. Due to nerve damage, tissue nutrition deteriorates, and furthermore, because of sensory loss, the affected body part is frequently subjected to unnoticed minor injuries. Together, these lead to bone resorption, severe joint deformities, and the formation of difficult-to-heal plantar ulcers prone to infection. It can be associated with severe, neglected diabetes or alcoholism. Much rarer is the joint damage accompanied by massive destruction and mild pain that develops in the late stage of syphilis (tabes dorsalis) and in syringomyelia (a disease involving the circumscribed destruction of the spinal cord). With early detection, the process can be slowed down or halted.

Neuropathy (neuropathia):

Nerve disorder, neuropathy; neuropathia diabetica means a nerve disorder associated with diabetes. It has several forms. A typical form is sensory disturbance of the feet and hands in a distribution corresponding to socks and gloves. It can also cause sciatica, as well as inflammation of the femoral nerve and the facial nerve.

Nodus:

Node, nodule.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs):

Anti-inflammatory medications that do not contain adrenal cortex hormones (corticosteroids).

Obesity (obesitas):

Obesity; severe excess weight that has adverse health effects. We speak of obesity when the body mass index (BMI) is above 30 kg/m², while the range between 25 and 30 kg/m² is referred to as significant overweight. It can serve as the underlying basis for diseases such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, sleep apnoea, osteoarthritis (joint arthrosis), certain neoplastic (tumorous) diseases, and depression.

Occipital (occipitalis):

Pertaining or belonging to the occiput (back of the head).

Occiput:

The back of the head.

Olecranon:

The tip of the elbow.

Omarthritis:

Inflammation of the shoulder joint.

Omo- (om / o):

Shoulder- (prefix).

Os:

Bone.

Oscillometer:

An instrument used to examine peripheral circulation (circulation in the limbs) by measuring and indicating the volume changes in blood vessels caused by blood flow.

Osmium:

The element with atomic number 76. Its compounds are used for synovectomy (the chemical destruction of the synovial membrane).

Osseous (osseus):

Bony, pertaining to bone.

Ossification (ossificatio):

Bone formation, bone remodelling, osteogenesis. Bone tissue can form either through the direct transformation of primitive connective tissue cells into bone (intramembranous ossification) or via a cartilaginous template (endochondral ossification). The latter occurs during the healing of bone fractures, where cartilage cells are first deposited between the fractured fragments and then undergo ossification by taking up inorganic minerals. Once this process is complete, the callus cloud surrounding the fractured ends is resorbed.

Osteo- (osteo):

Bone- (prefix).

Osteoblast:

Bone-building cell.

Osteochondritis dissecans:

A condition in the knee, hip, shoulder, or rarely ankle joint where a small fragment of cartilage and its underlying bone dies, detaches, and moves freely within the joint cavity, causing pain and potentially joint locking. Genetic predisposition, minor or major injuries, and local circulatory disturbances can play a role in its development. With months of cast immobilization, the detaching piece of cartilage may reattach and heal on its own. In many acute cases, surgery is performed if the detached fragment displaces between the weight-bearing surfaces.

Osteoclast:

Bone-resorbing (bone-breaking) cell.

Osteocyte (osteocyta):

Mature bone cell.

Osteomalacia:

Softening of the bones, usually due to vitamin D deficiency, as a result of which minerals are not adequately incorporated into the bone matrix. The bones are deficient in calcium, soft, and tender to pressure; often, the thigh muscles are also painful upon weight-bearing. Patients are easily fatigued, pale, and present with a waddling gait. In severe cases, the softened bones bend or fracture under load. The disease is generally curable with an adequate intake of vitamin D and calcium.

Osteomyelitis:

Inflammation of the bone marrow. It is mostly caused by pathogens reaching the bone through the bloodstream from another infectious source in the body, which is most commonly a purulent, inflamed tooth, skin inflammation, or middle ear infection (otitis media). Acute osteomyelitis is an infectious disease of the bone and bone marrow caused by pyogenic (pus-forming) bacteria. It most commonly affects the long tubular bones (femur, tibia, humerus, radius/ulna). In 90% of cases, the pathogen is the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. Rarely, the bone becomes infected due to a local effect, such as an accidental open fracture or following bone surgery. Its symptoms: the affected limb is painful and swollen, and the skin over it is red and warm to the touch. The pain persists even at rest and is throbbing in nature. It may be accompanied by high fever and malaise (feeling unwell).

Osteopenia:

A mild loss of bone mass or bone thinning that has not yet reached the diagnostic severity of osteoporosis.

Osteoporosis:

A decrease in bone mass below normal levels. Its precise definition: bone density is more than 2.5 standard deviations below the average of young adults. Bone mass loss begins around the age of 35, but this process accelerates in women around menopause due to declining oestrogen levels. The process is accelerated by certain diseases (hyperthyroidism, alcoholism, anorexia—very low body weight—kidney failure, and surgical removal of the ovaries) and certain medications (SSRIs, chemotherapy, proton pump inhibitors, and steroids). A sedentary lifestyle and smoking are risk factors for its development, as is inadequate calcium and vitamin D intake. It develops asymptomatically, which is why it is advisable to undergo regular osteodensitometry screening annually starting from the onset of menopause.

Paget's disease / Osteitis deformans:

Its origin is unknown, but genetic or environmental factors may play a role in its development. It is a disease involving the remodelling and structural alteration of the bone tissue. It can affect one or more bones; most commonly, the vertebrae, pelvis, sacrum, and femur are involved. The disease first consists of a bone resorption phase, followed by a bone formation phase. The newly formed bone has a woven (fibrous) structure, making it weaker, less dense, and more vascular (containing more blood vessels), which makes it less resistant to fractures. The disease is asymptomatic in 70–90% of cases, but where symptoms are present, they are the following: the affected bone is often painful, secondary joint osteoarthritis may develop later, the bone can deform, and neurological symptoms as well as an increased sensation of warmth may occur in the new bone. At other times, only the thickening or altered shape of the bone draws attention to the disease. We cannot cure it. In addition to pain relief, X-ray radiation therapy usually has a beneficial effect. More recently, good therapeutic results have been achieved using a thyroid hormone (calcitonin) and phosphate compounds (bisphosphonates).

Palmar (palmaris):

Pertaining to the palm of the hand. It is also used to define direction or anatomical position.

Panarteritis:

Inflammation of all layers of an arterial wall.

Pancreas:

It belongs to both the endocrine system and the digestive system. It is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach, closely adjacent to the small intestine. The hormones it produces and secretes into the blood are insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptides. It exerts its digestive system effect through a juice secreted into the gastrointestinal tract (duodenum) that contains bicarbonates to neutralize stomach acid, as well as enzymes that aid in the breakdown and absorption of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in the small intestine.

Panniculitis / Panniculosis:

Painful inflammation of the subcutaneous fat tissue. It is more common in women. It typically occurs in the pelvic region, thighs, and the medial (inner) side of the knees. The fat tissue can become more voluminous, firm to the touch, and highly painful. Locally administered anti-inflammatory injections and physiotherapy treatments are generally beneficial.

Paralysis:

Loss of function in one or more muscles. If both sensory and motor nerves are affected, it may be accompanied by sensory loss. The loss of function can be temporary or permanent. When paralysis is accompanied by involuntary tremor, it is often called palsy. It can be caused by peripheral nervous system injury—due to damage to the spinal cord or a peripheral nerve from trauma, neuropathy, or poliomyelitis. It can also be caused by central nervous system involvement—due to stroke, trauma, ALS, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis. Temporary paralysis is often caused by a regulatory disturbance occurring during the REM phase of sleep (sleep paralysis), which heals on its own after a period of time.

Parathyroid gland:

The parathyroid glands are located next to the thyroid gland, but their functions are linked only in the production of hormones that regulate the level of calcium ion content in the blood. Calcitonin, produced in the C-cells of the thyroid gland, and parathyroid hormone (PTH), produced by the parathyroid gland, jointly regulate blood calcium levels. They maintain it within very narrow limits (9.0–10.1 mmol/l). If the calcium level decreases, parathyroid hormone production increases—increasing the activity of bone-resorbing cells (osteoclasts). If the blood calcium level rises, calcitonin production increases, increasing the activity of bone-building cells (osteoblasts).

Parathyroid gland (parathyreoidea glandula):

The parathyroid glands are located next to the thyroid gland, but their functions are linked only in the production of hormones that regulate the level of calcium ion content in the blood. Calcitonin, produced in the C-cells of the thyroid gland, and parathyroid hormone (PTH), produced by the parathyroid gland, jointly regulate blood calcium levels. They maintain it within very narrow limits (9.0–10.1 mmol/l). If the calcium level decreases, parathyroid hormone production increases—increasing the activity of bone-resorbing cells (osteoclasts) to replenish the blood calcium ion level. If the blood calcium level rises, calcitonin production increases, thereby reducing the blood calcium ion level by increasing the activity of bone-building cells (osteoblasts).

Parathyroid hormone / Parathormone:

The parathyroid glands are located next to the thyroid gland, but their functions are linked only in the production of hormones that regulate the level of calcium ion content in the blood. Calcitonin, produced in the C-cells of the thyroid gland, and parathyroid hormone (PTH), produced by the parathyroid gland, jointly regulate blood calcium levels. They maintain it within very narrow limits (9.0–10.1 mmol/l). If the calcium level decreases, parathyroid hormone production increases—increasing the activity of bone-resorbing cells (osteoclasts) to replenish the blood calcium ion level. If the blood calcium level rises, calcitonin production increases, thereby reducing the blood calcium ion level by increasing the activity of bone-building cells (osteoblasts).

Paresis:

Weakness or partial loss of voluntary movements. Without further qualification, it is generally used for the limbs, but we can also speak of paresis of the eye, stomach (gastroparesis), or vocal cords. Neurologically, paresis means the weakness of movements, while paralysis means their complete loss. Regarding the limbs, its types are also defined: Monoparesis: Loss of function in a single limb. Paraparesis: Loss of movement in both legs. Hemiparesis: Loss of function in the muscles of the leg, arm, and trunk on one side of the body. Double hemiparesis: Hemiparesis develops on both sides, but one side is more severely affected. Tetraparesis: All four limbs are affected.

Parkinson's disease:

Parkinson's disease is a chronic, progressive disease of unknown origin involving the degeneration of the brain's so-called extrapyramidal structures that function with the neurotransmitter dopamine (such as the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus). If there is a demonstrable cause for this degeneration (accident, cerebral haemorrhage, cerebral infarction, encephalitis, metabolic diseases), we speak of Parkinson's syndrome. By the time symptoms manifest, patients have already lost at least 80% of the affected brain cells. Its symptoms: The most characteristic, classic syndrome includes the following symptoms: hypo- or bradykinesia (poverty or slowness of movement), tremor (hand shaking), rigidity (stiffness caused by increased muscle tone), and postural instability. Alongside primary symptoms, bradyphrenia (slowed thinking) and subsequently cognitive decline (dementia) are also frequently observed. The symptoms unfold over many years. In most patients, not all classic symptoms develop at the same time. The progression of the disease can vary greatly from person to person. In most cases, it results in severe disability. The severity of symptoms can fluctuate even within a single day. Its treatment: depending on age and symptoms, it is generally treated with dopamine replacement therapy.

Patella:

The kneecap, which serves to increase the leverage (force) of the quadriceps muscle at the anterior part of the knee.

Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome (PFPS / pain under or around the kneecap, hyperpressure syndrome):

Pain resulting from overuse of the joint between the kneecap (patella) and thigh bone (femur), ranging from mild discomfort to sharp pain. It usually affects physically active, athletic adolescents between the ages of 13 and 18, but can also begin at a later period following an unusually heavy load. A wider pelvis is a predisposing factor due to an increased Q-angle. The mechanical balance of muscles around the patella is disrupted, causing it to tilt laterally rather than sliding within its groove in the femur. It is hypothesized to result from a loss of muscle balance around the lumbar spine–pelvis–hip complex and the subtalar joint. Initially, it occurs only after heavy exertion, then appears under lighter loads, and finally becomes constant. Running, jumping, squatting, climbing stairs, and prolonged sitting in a static position worsen it. In its treatment, only a brief period of inactivity is maintained, followed by an assessment of the coordination and balance of the muscles around the patella, and then treating the imbalances identified during testing. After the weak muscles are strengthened and correct movement patterns are established, the pain resolves, and return to sports is possible.

Patellofemoral pain syndrome / Retropatellar pain:

Pain under the kneecap is a problem affecting 20–30% of physically active, athletic adolescents. It usually appears first between the ages of 13 and 18, following intense physical exertion. Initially, they feel pain around, under, or above the kneecap during exercise, then after exercise, and in more severe forms, even at rest. Activities that put stress on the joint—such as running, jumping, climbing stairs, squatting, and sitting still for a long time—also cause pain. Its predisposing factors include a wider pelvis (Q-angle) and a looser connective tissue system. After assessing the body's kinetic chains, retraining the faulty movement patterns found within them can improve the problem. If no results can be achieved this way, surgery can help eliminate the pain.

Pavlik harness:

The Pavlik harness is an orthopaedic device suitable for treating subluxable, dislocated, and dysplastic hips in infants. It only prevents extension of the hips and adduction of the knees (keeping them from being squeezed together), otherwise allowing the baby to move freely within it.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction):

A technique suitable for the amplification of DNA. With its help, certain infections that cannot be detected by standard culturing methods can also be proven.

Pelvis (pelvisz):

medence.

Periarthritis humeroscapularis / Frozen shoulder (PHS):

Synonyms for PHS include adhesive capsulitis and frozen shoulder syndrome. Frozen shoulder syndrome is a medical condition characterized by pain and stiffness in the shoulder. Symptoms typically worsen gradually over months or years. During the first months of the syndrome (2–9 months), increasingly severe shoulder pain is typically experienced, followed by shoulder stiffness. This stiffness can hinder the normal, trouble-free execution of daily activities. In severe cases, complete immobility of the shoulder occurs. The condition can improve over a period of years. Frozen shoulder syndrome can be caused by inflammation, thickening, and scarring of the shoulder joint capsule. The shoulder joint capsule is a highly lax joint capsule because a very large number of tendons, muscles, and bony structures run through a restrictedly small area in the shoulder, and high joint mobility is required for a wide range of motion. Furthermore, thanks to the spacious joint capsule, there is less friction between the structures, which is frequently responsible for the development of inflammation in the shoulder. If the capsule becomes inflamed and thickens, it not only causes pain, but there will be even less space in the shoulder (resulting in more friction and more irritation), causing further problems. It is not entirely clear what exact phenomenon or activity frozen shoulder syndrome is attributable to; however, based on observations, there are predisposing factors such as a previous shoulder injury or surgical intervention, diabetes, Dupuytren's contracture, heart disease, or stroke.
The necessity of treating frozen shoulder syndrome depends on the extent to which the shoulder pain and the restriction in range of motion escalate. In certain mild cases, symptoms resolve on their own over months or years. Even in these cases, treatment accelerates recovery. The cornerstone of treatment is reducing inflammation and eliminating pain, which is a difficult task because moving the arm subjects the inflamed part to constant irritation—it is no coincidence that the range of motion becomes restricted, which is why it is recommended to seek the help of a physiotherapist for 100% rehabilitation.

Periosteum:

The connective tissue membrane covering the bone, which has a dense vascular network and participates in bone formation or regeneration after fractures. This is where the Sharpey's fibers of tendons insert, through which muscles, anchored to the bone, are able to move them.

Periostitis:

Inflammation of the periosteum. Muscles are attached by tendons to the bone through the periosteum via Sharpey's fibers. Ligaments connect bones to other bones. The area where ligaments and tendons attach to the bone is called an enthesis. Inflammation of the enthesis is called enthesitis. It develops due to muscle overload, injury, or other diseases. This inflammation triggers new bone formation in the periosteum, e.g., a heel spur on the foot or at the insertion of the Achilles tendon. Its symptoms: stiffness, pain, and swelling around the affected area.

Perthes disease / Osteochondritis deformans juvenilis coxae:

Due to a circulatory disturbance of the femoral head, the ossification centre of the femoral head dies. It usually presents between 3 and 12 years of age. It is four times more common in boys than in girls. It presents with hip pain, restricted range of motion, and limping. Under weight-bearing, the dead femoral head can collapse and flatten, leading to early arthrosis. The core of the treatment is offloading (non-weight-bearing) the hip; therefore, the child can only walk with 2 crutches or a walking brace. At the same time, care must be taken to strengthen the muscles. Physiotherapy, swimming, and cycling are excellent for this purpose. Healing takes 3–6 years. Many attempt to shorten this period with surgery. The goal of surgery is to alter weight-bearing conditions and accelerate bone regeneration. Even with timely and professional treatment, the process frequently leads to deformity of the femoral head, and the risk of early cartilage wear is also high. Therefore, even after recovering from Perthes disease, it is advisable to exempt children from school physical education and have them attend medical exercise therapy and engage in hip-sparing sports, such as swimming. These aspects must also be taken into account when choosing a career.

Pes:

Foot.

Phalanx:

Finger or toe bone.

Phlogistic:

Pertaining to an inflammatory disease.

Phlogistic (phlogisticum):

An agent that induces inflammation (pro-inflammatory substance).

Phlogistic (phlogisticus):

Inflammatory disease.

Phlogistic agent:

An agent that induces inflammation.

Physical therapy:

Medical treatment utilizing physical energies: heat, electricity, and mechanical forces. Its components include: electrotherapy, mechanotherapy (ultrasound), phototherapy (UV, IR, laser), thermotherapy (heat therapy, cryotherapy), and hydrotherapy.

Physiotherapy:

Medical treatment utilizing natural modalities; this conventionally includes balneotherapy (bath treatments) and various physical therapy treatments. The mechanism of action of physiotherapy: Local: enhancement of circulation, reduction of inflammation, and muscle strengthening. Reflexive: pain reduction, improvement of motor coordination, muscle relaxation, and specific effects. Its foundation rests on Melzack & Wall's Gate-control theory (a greater mechanical stimulus prevents pain from ascending to the brain or reduces it), competitive peripheral input (out of two identical mechanical stimuli, only one can ascend to the brain, inhibiting pain), and descending central control (with its help, substances with pain-relieving effects are also produced in the brain, and the brain raises the stimulus threshold, thereby increasing the pain threshold as well).

Piriformis syndrome (piriformis syndroma):

A rare neuromuscular disorder that occurs when the piriformis muscle compresses the sciatic nerve (nervus ischiadicus). The piriformis muscle runs from the sacrum through the middle of the buttock to the upper part of the hip joint. When this muscle compresses the sciatic nerve, it usually causes pain and numbness in the buttock area. Later, these symptoms can extend to the entire distribution of the sciatic nerve, mimicking the symptoms of a spinal disc herniation. Sitting for long periods—during driving or desk work—provokes or intensifies the symptoms. The symptoms can be provoked with physical tests, thereby proving that the cause of the pain is the involvement of this muscle.

Plantar (plantaris):

Pertaining to the sole of the foot.

Planum:

Plane.

Plasty (plastica):

Reconstructive surgery, plastic surgery.

Pneumo-:

Lung-, air-, gas- (prefix).

Pneumonia:

Inflammation of the lungs.

Podagra:

A gouty attack of the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint of the big toe. It is a sudden, intense pain that often begins at night without any warning. Its symptoms: local pain, swelling, and red, warm skin, most commonly affecting the big toe, but it can also appear in other parts of the foot. It is a frequently recurring problem that causes the most severe symptoms within the first 12–24 hours of its onset.

Podo-:

Foot- (prefix).

Pollex:

Thumb.

Poly-:

Many, multi- (prefix).

Polyarteritis nodosa / Panarteritis nodosa (PAN):

A disease characterized by the nodular inflammation of blood vessels. It can affect any organ. It is frequently accompanied by muscle and joint pain, as well as inflammation, and numbness and weakness of the legs due to neuritis (nerve inflammation).

Polyarthritis:

Simultaneous inflammation of multiple joints.

Polyarticular (polyarticularis):

Affecting multiple joints.

Polymyalgia rheumatica:

A disease that usually has an abrupt onset, characterized by pain in the shoulder and pelvic girdles, and an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). It is frequently accompanied by weakness, weight loss, low-grade fever, loss of appetite, anaemia, depression, and restricted mobility. In some patients, it is also associated with vasculitis (blood vessel inflammation). Involvement of the temporal artery can cause severe headache, and involvement of the ophthalmic artery can cause visual impairment. Its origin is unknown. It typically affects women over the age of 60. Steroid treatment rapidly relieves symptoms, but to achieve complete recovery, the medication must often be taken in a reduced dose for years.

Polymyositis (PM):

A disease involving the inflammation of muscles and muscle fibres; in some cases, it is accompanied by skin inflammation, in which case it is called dermatopolymyositis (DPM). It can be an independent disease or associated with malignant tumorous diseases. Characteristic symptoms: muscle pain, weakness, and muscle atrophy (wasting). The skin inflammation typically appears on sun-exposed areas and over the joints. At the beginning of the disease, polyarthritis (multi-joint inflammation) is common. It can also affect the myocardium (heart muscle) and the lungs. A significant portion of patients responds well to steroid treatment.

Poor posture:

A significant portion of our daily movements takes place without our conscious attention, posture being a typical example. Poor posture is most commonly seen during adolescence, but it can also develop in adulthood due to improper body mechanics. Features include: rounded/slouched shoulders, increased thoracic and lumbar spinal curves (as if constantly wearing high heels), one shoulder positioned lower or higher than the other (as if holding a phone between the ear and shoulder), or one side of the pelvis positioned lower or higher (as if sitting lopsidedly in an office chair with one hand on a mouse or constantly standing on one leg). Treatment: After identifying the components of poor posture, targeted physical therapy (medical exercise therapy) must be used to stretch shortened muscles and strengthen weakened muscles.

Popliteal (poplitealis):

Pertaining to the back of the knee (popliteal fossa).

Popliteus:

A muscle located in the popliteal fossa (back of the knee) that stabilizes the knee from behind and plays an important role in its movements—flexion, extension, and rotation.

Porosis:

Thinning, rarefaction.

Post-:

Behind, after (prefix).

Posterior:

situated behind.

Pre- / Prae-:

Before, preceding (prefix).

Prevention (preventio):

We distinguish several types. Primary prevention is when we prevent damage or disease from occurring—for example, through a healthy lifestyle. With secondary prevention, we assist in early detection, thereby preventing the development or worsening of the disease—such as participating in screening examinations. With tertiary prevention, we prevent an already developed disease from reaching a level that would severely restrict our range of movement. This refers to treatment or rehabilitation.

Profundus:

Deep, deeply situated. Usually used with two similar muscles to distinguish between them (e.g., superficial vs. deep).

Prognosis:

A professional opinion regarding the expected outcome of a disease.

Prognostic:

Indicative of or characterizing the expected outcome of a disease; predictable.

Progression (progressio):

The advancement or worsening of a pathological process.

Progressive (progressiv):

Increasing, advancing.

Progressive systemic sclerosis (progressiv systemas sclerosis / PSS):

An autoimmune disease in which the body attacks itself, namely its various organs. An early sign is that the texture of the skin changes due to increased collagen production. Collagen is part of the connective tissue making up organs and blood vessels, so the disease can also affect the heart, lungs, kidneys, muscles, and oesophagus. Joint symptoms can be improved with anti-inflammatory drugs. As a result of skin scarring, joint deformity and restricted range of motion can develop, which can be delayed or, in fortunate cases, prevented with regular passive mobilization and local treatments.

Prolapse (prolapsus):

Slipping down. It is used to describe the falling down of organs, e.g., prolapsus uteri when the uterus sinks due to the weakening of its supporting ligaments, but it is also used to describe the outward bulging of the central, denser part of an intervertebral disc (disc prolapse).

Proliferation (proliferatio):

Reproduction, growth, multiplication, budding.

Prominence (prominentia):

Elevation, projection, bulge. E.g., the male "Adam's apple" is the laryngeal prominence (prominentia laryngea).

Pronation (pronatio):

Twisting, turning; rotation of the forearm in the elbow and wrist joints.

Prosthesis (prothesis):

The replacement of a body part with an artificial limb or structure; during joint prosthesis surgery (joint replacement), an artificial joint is implanted in place of the natural joint.

Protrusion (protrusio):

Bulging, projection. E.g., if an intervertebral disc bulges into the spinal canal, we speak of disc protrusion (discus protrusio).

Proximal (proximalis):

Closer, situated near the trunk (e.g., of a limb).

Pseudo-:

Apparent, false, sham (prefix).

Pseudoparalysis (pseudo-paralysis):

Voluntary restriction or inhibition of movements due to pain, coordination disturbance, or mental stress (e.g., a panic attack). It is not a true loss of muscle function.

Psoas major:

A lumbar muscle that controls the relative movements of the lumbar spine, pelvis, and hip joint. If the hip and pelvis are stable, bilateral action of the muscle extends the lumbar spine, while unilateral action bends the spine to the side. If the spine is stable, it flexes and externally rotates the hip joint.

Psoriasis:

A chronic skin disease of unknown origin. It is characterized by skin cells dividing ten times faster than normal. As the deep-lying cells reach the skin surface, they die and leave it through scaling. Symptoms can repeatedly resolve and then return. The skin lesions—characterized by silvery scales on a pale or dark red base with keratinizing epithelium—can appear on any part of the body, most commonly seen in the knee-elbow region, over the sacrum, and on the scalp. The nails are also frequently affected.

Psoriasis:

Psoriatic arthritis (arthritis psoriatica):

Musculoskeletal disorders occur in 10% of patients with psoriasis, which can present as inflammation of a few large joints, sacroiliac and spinal facet joint inflammation similar to Ankylosing Spondylitis (Bechterew's disease), or inflammation of the small joints of the hand. While hand inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis typically has a symmetrical distribution on both hands and affects the metacarpophalangeal (base) joints of the fingers, here it is typically asymmetrical and targets the distal interphalangeal (nail bed) joints in women, and the spinal facet joints in men, though it can also present in a distribution similar to rheumatoid arthritis. It is an immune-mediated disease, which means that a genetic predisposition is activated by an environmental factor (infection, obesity, smoking, stress, medications, chemicals), leading to the development of the disease.

Pulmo-:

Lung (prefix).

Punctate (punctatum):

Fluid obtained by puncture.

Puncture (punctio):

Penetrating through the skin with an injection needle. Generally, the goal is to aspirate fluid from a fluid-containing space. E.g., the goal of joint puncture is to remove fluid from the joint—either for examination or to reduce the overpressure caused by the fluid. The goal of a lumbar puncture (spinal tap) is to examine the cerebrospinal fluid (liquor) in the spinal canal.

Pyo-:

Pus- (prefix); used in compounds such as pyogenic (pus-forming) bacteria.

Pyretic (pyreticum):

A pyrogen (fever-inducing agent).

Pyrexia:

A febrile state, fever.

RA:

Abbreviation for rheumatoid arthritis.

Radiation (radiatio):

Painful irradiation (spreading of pain).

Radiculitis:

Nerve roots emerging from the spinal cord leave the spine through the intervertebral foramina (foramen intervertebrale) located next to the facet joints and run down to the tips of the fingers and toes. Along their course, they innervate specific muscles, bones, and skin areas. In the case of skin, these innervated areas are called dermatomes, which are used to identify the affected nerve root or nerve. Nerve roots emerging from the cervical section cause radiating symptoms in the neck, chest, shoulder, arm, and hand, while those exiting from the lumbar section cause symptoms radiating into the lower back, pelvis, hip, and leg. If a nerve root is irritated, it can become inflamed. In such cases, the swelling accompanying the inflammation causes compressive symptoms on the nerve root, resulting in radiating pain in the area it innervates. Its symptoms include burning, wire-like radiating pain, sensory and motor deficits, or altered sensations (paresthesia) and numbness. With anti-inflammatory medications, the oedema can be reduced, and then with gentle physiotherapy, the mobility of the nerve and its surrounding area can be restored.

Radiculopathy (radiculopathia):

Damage to a nerve root exiting the spine due to physical (mechanical) factors or an underlying disease. Mechanical compression (pressure) can be caused by degenerative changes such as discopathy, herniated disc (discus hernia), foraminal stenosis (narrowing), ligament hypertrophy, or spondylolisthesis. Diabetes mellitus can serve as an underlying disease. Its physical tests include the SLR (Straight Leg Raise) test, Spurling test, and deep tendon reflexes. Diagnostic methods include MRI and projection radiography. Its electro diagnostic: EMG. After confirming the problem, the underlying cause of the radiculopathy must be treated so that the symptoms (burning, wire-like pain radiating into the arm or leg, sensory and motor deficits, altered sensations, numbness) resolve.

Radius:

A bone, which is located on the thumb side of the forearm.

Radix:

Nerve root; the exit point of nerves. Nerve roots exiting from the spinal cord leave the spine through the intervertebral foramina (foramen intervertebrale) located next to the facet joints and run down to the tips of the fingers and toes. Along their course, they innervate specific muscles, bones, and skin areas. In the case of skin, these innervated areas are called dermatomes, which are used to identify the affected nerve root or nerve. Nerve roots emerging from the cervical section cause radiating symptoms in the neck, chest, shoulder, arm, and hand, while those exiting from the lumbar section cause symptoms in the lower back, pelvis, hip, and leg. Cervical nerve roots are numbered based on the upper segment surrounding them, while lumbar nerve roots are numbered based on the lower segment.

Range of motion (ROM):

Reactive arthritis:

Joint inflammation occurring after a bacterial infection, presumably triggered by the infection; however, the pathogen cannot be demonstrated from the joint using traditional microbiological methods (culturing), though newer techniques such as PCR can occasionally detect the pathogen or its components. It is hypothesized that the immune response triggered by the pathogen causes the inflammation. It has been observed following several types of infections. The most well-known among these are rheumatic fever developing after Streptococcus infection, Chlamydia trachomatis, gastrointestinal pathogens (Campylobacter, Salmonella, Shigella, and Yersinia), and Lyme disease.

Recurrent (recurrens):

Relapsing. Used for a disease when it resolves and then symptoms return with great regularity. After another quiet period, the disease flares up again.

Rehabilitation:

The restoration of impaired functions in an individual after recovery from an accident or illness according to their condition, preparing them as perfectly as possible for self-care and work.

Reiter's syndrome:

A disease primarily affecting men aged 20–40. It usually develops following intestinal infections or sexually transmitted infections. It causes ocular inflammation (uveitis/conjunctivitis), urethritis, prostatitis, and joint inflammation primarily affecting large joints. The disease may settle down within a few weeks or months, but in about one-third of cases, symptoms periodically return. In one in ten cases, Ankylosing Spondylitis (Bechterew's disease) may develop. If an infection is identified, joint inflammation can usually be prevented by administering antibiotics.

Relapse (relapsus):

Deterioration, worsening.

Relaxant / Muscle relaxant (relaxans):

Agents that induce a reduction in muscle tone and the relaxation of overly tense muscles. They can act on the brain or spinal cord by reducing the hyper-excitable state of neurons; such agents include baclofen, methocarbamol, and tizanidine. They can also act directly on the muscle, such as dantrolene and botulinum toxin. Cannabis extract possesses both mechanisms of action. Baclofen, dantrolene, and tizanidine reduce generalized spasticity occurring throughout the body in conditions like stroke or multiple sclerosis. Carisoprodol, chlorzoxazone, cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone, methocarbamol, and orphenadrine reduce muscle spasms. Botulinum toxin is used to treat spasticity in specific limb muscles.

Relaxation (relaxatio):

A method, technique, or activity that promotes relaxation and easing of tension. It helps reduce stress, nervousness, anger, and rage, and physically relieves pain and muscle stiffness. Such relaxation techniques include yoga, autogenic training, qigong (chi gong), and tai chi.

Remission (remissio):

The temporary or permanent reduction or resolution of disease symptoms.

Ren:

Kidney.

Renal (renalis):

Pertaining to the kidney(s).

Retraction (retractio):

Contraction, shrinkage, pulling backward. It refers to pulling the scapula (shoulder blade) backward, as opposed to pulling it forward, which is called protraction.

Retro-:

Backward-, behind- (prefix).

Rheumatic fever (febris rheumatica):

An acute disease occurring after a Streptococcus infection. Typically, fever and joint inflammation develop 1–2 weeks following an upper respiratory tract infection, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, or scarlet fever. It may be accompanied by carditis (heart inflammation), skin rashes, and muscle twitching (chorea). Antibodies against Streptococcus bacteria (AST/ASO) can be detected in the patients' blood. Strict bed rest is essential to prevent cardiac complications. Anti-inflammatory drugs, usually salicylates and rarely steroid preparations, are required to relieve symptoms. Although the pathogen is no longer present at the onset of the rheumatic fever itself, antibiotics—usually penicillin—are typically administered to prevent recurrence and must be taken for years even after recovery. Since the advent of routine antibiotic treatment for upper respiratory infections, its occurrence has become rare.

Rheumatism (rheuma):

A colloquial umbrella term for a group of diseases accompanied by joint, muscle, and bone pain.

Rheumatoid arthritis / Progressive chronic polyarthritis (progressiv chronicus polyarthritis / PCP):

Rheumatoid arthritis is a generalized connective tissue disease, which is a chronic autoimmune disease with a fluctuating course presenting diverse symptoms. It is a systemic, progressive inflammation primarily affecting the joints, which—contrary to popular belief—is not only a disease of the joints but of the entire organism. Inflammation can develop in internal organs, skin, and mucous membranes, and small rheumatoid nodules can even appear under the skin. It is generally a disease that begins slowly and insidiously. Initially, morning swelling and stiffness of the limbs, especially the small joints of the hand, are observed, which usually resolve within 1–2 hours. The inflammation, and the accompanying swelling, redness, and pain, can affect any joint (and even multiple joints simultaneously), but the fingers, wrists, knees, and ankles are most commonly involved. Long-standing inflammation damages the joints, causing restricted mobility and deformities. This is why early, accurate diagnosis and targeted special treatment are necessary. Immunological research in recent years has enabled a more thorough analysis of the clinical picture and the achievement of better therapeutic results.

Rheumatoid arthritis, RA:

Also known as progressive chronic polyarthritis (progressive chronicus polyarthritis / PCP). An autoimmune disease that causes chronic inflammation in the joints and other areas of the body. It is a chronic illness characterized by alternating flare-ups and remissions of symptoms. Symmetrical chronic inflammation in the body damages the joints, though joint damage is not always directly proportional to the severity of the disease. Symptoms: Joint pain, inflammation, swelling, loss of function, reduced range of motion, and deformities. Fever, anaemia, and fatigue frequently occur. Rheumatoid nodules may develop under the skin. Treatment: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), immunosuppressants, steroids, IL-6 inhibitors, and TNF-alpha inhibitors. Rest, physical therapy, joint protection, and, in cases of severe joint deformity, surgical intervention are highly beneficial.

Rheumatoid factor (rheuma factor):

Antibodies (proteins produced by the immune system) that attack the body's healthy tissues. Their blood levels increase in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and Sjögren's syndrome.

Rheumatoid factor (rheuma factor):

An antibody detectable in the blood of 80% of people with autoimmune diseases during a laboratory blood test. Its quantity can indicate the expected course of the disease to both the treating autoimmune specialist and the patient. It often helps in the precise adjustment of medications.

Rheumatoid nodule:

A firm-to-touch nodule, reminiscent of an unripe fruit, developing under the skin most commonly in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, usually palpable around the elbow region. Less frequently, it develops near the metacarpophalangeal (base) joints of the hand.

Rheumatology (rheumatologia):

A medical specialty dealing with musculoskeletal disorders. Recently, its focus has been centred on immune-mediated musculoskeletal diseases, in which the onset and course of the disease are determined by the patient's immune system. Rheumatologists also possess the greatest expertise regarding which physiotherapeutic procedures can most effectively treat musculoskeletal diseases.

Rickets (rachitis):

A general metabolic disease developing mostly in infants due to vitamin D deficiency. The bones are poor in lime, soft, bend under weight-bearing, and the development of the skeletal system is also impaired. If the calcium concentration in the blood decreases, muscle spasms (tetany) occur. The disease can be prevented with proper nutrition, sun exposure, and taking vitamin D; if it has already developed, it can be cured within a few weeks with vitamin D treatment.

Rickets (rachitis):

A general metabolic disease occurring mostly in infants due to vitamin D deficiency. The bones are mineral-deficient (poor in lime) and soft, becoming bent under weight-bearing, and the development of the skeletal system is also impaired. If the concentration of calcium in the blood drops, muscle spasms (tetany) develop. The disease can be prevented with proper nutrition, exposure to sunlight, and vitamin D supplementation; once developed, it can be cured within a few weeks with vitamin D treatment.

Rigidity (rigiditas):

Muscle stiffness and increased muscle tone resulting from damage to the neural areas regulating muscle tone.

Rigor:

Stiffness, increased muscle tone.

Rotation (rotatio):

Circular movement or turning of a given limb around its longitudinal axis of motion.

Rupture (ruptura):

Tear, cracking.

Sacroileitis:

Inflammation of the joint between the sacrum and the ilium. Causes may include: trauma (sudden force impact due to a fall or car accident), inflammation (any arthritis affecting the spine can also affect the sacroiliac joint), pregnancy (hormonal changes cause ligament laxity, resulting in greater mobility than the joint can tolerate), and infection. Symptoms: pain in the buttocks, groin, and lumbar spine, which may radiate into the leg. It is aggravated by prolonged standing, climbing stairs, sitting with legs crossed, or carrying weight on one side.

Sacroiliac joint (articulatio sacroiliaca):

A rigid, non-mobile joint connecting the sacrum to the ilium.

Sacrum:

Tailbone region.

Sarcoid:

Fleshy.

Sarcoidosis:

A chronic inflammatory disease of unknown aetiology primarily affecting the lymphatic system. In 20% of cases, transient arthritis appears at the onset of the disease and resolves completely within a few weeks. The disease can also cause chronic polyarthritis lasting for years, characterized by periods of remission and exacerbation, though deformities develop rarely and are mild when present. Anti-inflammatory drugs alleviate symptoms. Steroid therapy is required for forms affecting internal organs.

Scalene (scalenus):

The mm. scaleni are a group of neck muscles located on the anterior aspect of the neck. Blood vessels and nerves supplying the arm pass between them.

Scalene syndrome (scalenus syndrome):

Blood vessels and nerves of the upper extremity emerge above the clavicle between the scalene muscles (which move the neck) at the upper chest to reach the arm. The vessels and nerves may be compressed by a cervical rib, spasm of the scalene muscles, narrowing of the space between the first rib and the clavicle, drooping of the shoulder girdle in older age, hyperabduction syndrome, or lung apex diseases. This compression can cause numbness and pain in the ring and little fingers, decreased tactile sensation, and hand weakness. Specialized physical therapy to strengthen the neck and shoulder muscles is usually sufficient to eliminate symptoms; surgery is rarely necessary.

Scapula:

Shoulder blade.

Scheuermann's disease:

One of the most common spinal disorders developing during adolescence. The endplates of the vertebral bodies are weak and collapse due to osteochondrosis. The vertebral bodies become wedge-shaped (taller posteriorly and shorter anteriorly), leading to increased thoracic curvature—kyphosis—of the spine. The disease usually begins between ages 10 and 16, during the most intense growth phase of the spine. Children are often screened during school medical exams upon noticing poor posture or reduced spinal mobility. In other cases, parents seek examination due to fatigue or back pain. Symptoms: sensitive, stiff muscles after a full day of sitting at school; a reddened or chafed patch of skin at the apex of the thoracic curve where the back contacts the chair back; physical activity (especially involving twisting or bending movements) increases discomfort and pain; muscle stiffness and spasms in the paraspinal and hamstring muscles. Decreased respiratory capacity due to a rigid thoracic segment is common, leading to fatigue. Patients frequently complain of a feeling as if their balance were disturbed. Diagnosis is based on physical examination and imaging (X-ray, CT, MRI) findings. A characteristic sign on imaging is Schmorl's node (hernia), which remains visible in adulthood even though it causes no symptoms. Treatment focuses on physiotherapy and swimming. A firmer, horizontal mattress is important, and high pillows should be avoided.

Schmorl's node (Schmorl's hernia):

Developmentally, the vertebral endplate belongs to the intervertebral disc. If inflammation occurs during spinal growth due to Scheuermann's disease, the disc forms a small indentation on the inferior or superior endplate of the vertebral body. This develops during spinal growth, around adolescence. If it causes pain at that time, it is part of Scheuermann's disease and must be addressed then (e.g., via physical therapy). In adulthood, the presence of a Schmorl's node alone does not cause pain and is usually an incidental finding; therefore, other causes must be sought for current back pain (e.g., muscle imbalance, etc.), and appropriate therapy planned accordingly.

Scintigraphy:

An imaging procedure that visualizes the distribution of radiopharmaceuticals administered into the body. In static scintigraphy, a radioactive isotope bound to specific organs (e.g., thyroid) or bound to a substance accumulating in the target organ (e.g., bone, kidney, liver) is introduced into the body. Using a detector and computer, an image of the isotope distribution is created. It is used to evaluate organ morphology and structures displaying abnormal isotope uptake (e.g., tumours, inflamed areas). Dynamic scintigraphy evaluates either organ blood flow by tracking isotope distribution in the vasculature immediately after administration, or serial images are taken to track substance excretion by the target organ (most commonly used to assess renal and biliary excretion).

Scleroderma:

A chronic autoimmune skin disease. The body produces excessive collagen, causing the skin to become thick and rigid. It may also affect the lungs, kidneys, and blood vessels. There are two types: localized scleroderma affects only the skin, appearing as hard oval patches or thick linear streaks on the hands, feet, or face; systemic scleroderma can develop slowly, mainly affecting the skin before spreading to internal organs, or rapidly, closely resembling other autoimmune diseases. Treatment is similar to other autoimmune conditions—nonsteroidal or steroid anti-inflammatories and immunosuppressants, alongside symptom management for specific organ involvement.

Sclerosis:

Thickening and hardening of tissues.

Scoliosis:

Lateral curvature of the spine. In 20–30% of cases, it is caused by a developmental anomaly or underlying disease; 70–80% of cases are idiopathic (unknown origin). Abnormal spinal curvatures typically develop between ages 3 and 15. If persistent, the vertebral bodies themselves may gradually deform. Scoliosis leads to uneven loading and premature osteoarthritis of the spine. In severe cases, the rib cage distorts, causing respiratory and circulatory impairment. In mild cases, a corset/brace, specialized physical therapy, and swimming are sufficient to establish correct posture, strengthen back muscles, and reduce curvature where possible. Severe cases require various traction devices, braces, or surgery. Functional scoliosis is a specific form occurring in girls aged 10–12. The curvature can be corrected during examination, often voluntarily, and disappears in a prone position or when bending forward. If the back muscles are strengthened through physical therapy, swimming, or regular sports, and the child regularly performs posture-correcting exercises with due attention, functional scoliosis can be corrected. If unaddressed in time, it can become fixed and cause severe issues later.

Selective stimulus current therapy:

An electrotherapy technique using specific current waveforms to evoke strong muscle contractions for electrical muscle stimulation. Part of physical medicine, often combined with physiotherapy or thermal baths. Transformed grid current stimulates target muscles to contract, aiding in the regeneration of weakened muscle while providing analgesic, antispasmodic, and muscle-relaxing effects. Used for denervated muscles (e.g., after nerve injury from herniated discs or trauma) where active contraction is severely impaired, preventing atrophy. Treatment continues until the muscle can move the joint through its full range of motion.

Serology:

The branch of immunology studying antigen-antibody reactions.

Seronegative:

Absence of a specific target antibody in blood serum. In rheumatology, it most commonly refers to the absence of Rheumatoid Factor (RF).

Seronegative Spondyloarthritis (SNSA):

A group of inflammatory rheumatologic diseases characterized by seronegativity (absence of Rheumatoid Factor), distinguishing them from rheumatoid arthritis. Sacroiliitis and spondylitis are common, though any joint can be involved. Strongly associated with the HLA-B27 gene. Ankylosing spondylitis is a classic example. Can be associated with inflammatory eye diseases, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), or psoriasis; reactive arthritis often presents as SNSA.

Seropositive:

Presence of a specific antibody in blood serum. Seropositive polyarthritis typically refers to Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA).

Shortwave therapy:

High-frequency electrical energy is converted into heat within the body, making it suitable for warming deep-seated structures. As a result, pain decreases, circulation improves, and overly tense muscles relax, thereby increasing tissue mobility. It is used in cases of strains, contusions, and inflammation of tissues surrounding joints.

Shoulder-hand syndrome:

Shoulder-hand syndrome is a form of reflex sympathetic dystrophy characterized by pain and limited movement of the shoulder and hand on the affected side. It can be caused by injury (for example, falling on the hand, a radius fracture [Colles' fracture]), a heart attack, a stroke, or potentially by taking certain medications (e.g., barbiturates). The exact mechanism of its development is unknown, although it can be established that some people are more predisposed to it than others. Symptoms present in 3 stages: Stage 1 begins with a sudden, widespread swelling (oedema) and tenderness of the hand, and the hand is pale due to the constriction of blood vessels. Pain is felt in the shoulder and the hand, especially during movement. An X-ray taken of the hand usually shows patchy osteoporosis. In Stage 2, the swelling and tenderness decrease; the pain in the hand also abates. Stage 3 is characterized by the resolution of swelling, tenderness, and pain, but the movement of the hand is restricted because the fingers are stiff or claw-like, resembling Dupuytren's contracture. In this stage, X-rays often show extensive reduction in bone density.

Sjögren's syndrome:

A disease characterized by inflammation and decreased function of the salivary, lacrimal, and often gastric mucosal glands, and less frequently other glands. It can accompany other conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, dermatomyositis/polymyositis, progressive systemic sclerosis, or systemic lupus erythematosus. Less commonly, it occurs as a primary disease and can cause joint pain or arthritis. Ocular symptoms are relieved by artificial tears. Artificial saliva may be tried for dry mouth, but frequent fluid intake and consuming juicy, sour foods are often more effective.

Skeleton (szkeleton):

csontváz

SLE (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus):

A chronic autoimmune disease of unknown aetiology lasting for years that causes inflammation of small arteries. It can affect virtually any organ. It often begins with skin rashes, arthritis, and fever. The rash typically appears across the bridge of the nose and both cheeks (butterfly rash) and on other sun-exposed areas. It can involve the kidneys, heart, lungs, liver, spleen, lymph nodes, eyes, and frequently causes neurological symptoms. Corticosteroids and immunosuppressive agents are effective in treatment.

Spasm (spasmus):

Involuntary muscle contraction.

Spasmolytic (spasmolyticum):

Antispasmodic drugs generally used for smooth muscle spasms.

Spastic:

Cramp-like. Usually refers to muscle stiffness. In skeletal muscles, it mostly arises from muscle overuse when the muscle is fatigued, dehydrated, or has an electrolyte imbalance. Smooth muscle spasms in hollow organ walls are triggered by organ involvement (e.g., menstrual cramps). It can also result from central nervous system damage; in which case it affects the muscular system globally rather than a single muscle or muscle group.

Splen:

Spleen.

Spondylarthritis:

Inflammation of the spinal joints, affecting the joints as well as ligamentous and tendon insertion sites (entheses). It primarily affects the intervertebral joints, though limb joints may rarely be involved. A strong genetic predisposition linked to the HLA-B27 gene has been identified. Symptoms: back pain and joint pain. Diagnosis relies on patient history, physical examination, blood laboratory tests, and imaging (X-ray, CT, MRI). Treatment utilizes the same medications as other inflammatory musculoskeletal diseases.

Spondylo-:

Prefix denoting the spine or related structures.

Spondylolisthesis:

Spinal slippage (spondylolisthesis), where one vertebra slips forward relative to another. Graded in 5 stages: Grade 1 (up to 25% displacement), Grade 2 (up to 50%), Grade 3 (up to 75%), Grade 4 (up to 100%). Grade 5 is complete displacement (spondyloptosis). Cause: excessive, repetitive physical activity. Symptoms: lumbar spine pain, spasms and stiffness in paraspinal and hamstring muscles, hyperlordosis, and weakness in one or both legs. Treatment depends on grade and symptoms. Grades up to 50% are typically managed conservatively with physical therapy and physiatry; higher grades may require surgery.

Spondylolysis:

A defect or fracture in the pars interarticularis of the vertebral arch, which may be a stress fracture. Most commonly found at L5. Usually asymptomatic, but if symptomatic, presents with: increased lumbar lordosis, unilateral muscle tenderness, pain worsening with extension and lateral rotation, and radiating pain into the thigh and buttocks. Onset may be sudden or gradual and can impair daily function. Aetiology: excessive physical activity during youth overloads the structural weak point of the vertebral arch.

Spondylosis:

A degenerative disease of the spine involving decreased tissue hydration, affecting intervertebral discs. Causes: congenital vertebral anomalies, altered cartilage quality, bone/metabolic diseases, trauma, occupational overload, obesity, pregnancy. After age 30, physiological wear causes disc fibrillation, reduced disc height, and bulging. Loss of shock-absorption capacity increases mechanical stress on bones and ligaments, leading to overload and degeneration. Micro instability triggers bone spur formation (osteophytes) along vertebral margins and ligament attachments. Areas under maximum load are most affected.

Sprain (distorsio):

As a result of an injury/accident, the joint capsule and muscles stretch, and some fibres may tear, but complete tearing does not occur. The sprained body part is painful and swollen, and its use is difficult due to pain. Following an injury (e.g., ankle sprain, distortion) or a few weeks spent in immobilization—due to the lack of movement—the fascia tissue undergoes remodelling. Signs of this transformation include pain in the affected body part/limb segment, a feeling of numbness, stiffness, tightness, or swelling occurring under load/weight-bearing.

Sternum:

Breastbone, forming the anterior part of the thoracic cage.

Steroid:

A class of compounds possessing a sterane ring system. Notable steroids include adrenocortical hormones regulating salt-water balance and carbohydrate metabolism, as well as sex hormones. Certain steroids are potent anti-inflammatory agents used medically. Corticosteroids regulate the immune system (used as immunosuppressants), mineralocorticoids affect blood pressure, and sex steroids regulate uterine lining states (progesterone) or secondary sexual characteristics (oestrogen in females, testosterone in males).

Stroke:

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA). An umbrella term for conditions arising from impaired cerebral blood supply, including transient ischemic attacks (TIA), embolism, cerebral thrombosis, hypertensive encephalopathy, cerebral infarction, and brain haemorrhage. Typically caused by atherosclerosis or hypertension.

Sub-:

Prefix meaning under, below, less, or milder.

Subluxation:

Partial dislocation of a joint. Used in orthopaedics and traumatology when the articular head moves to the edge of the socket without completely leaving it.

Subtalar joint:

The joint between the talus and calcaneus (lower ankle joint). Facilitates inversion/eversion of the foot, helping adapt to uneven terrain. Its capsule and ligaments contain proprioceptors involved in setting muscle tone across the lower extremities.

Sudeck's atrophy (Reflex Dystrophy, CRPS - Complex Regional Pain Syndrome):

A syndrome developing after injury, fracture, arthritis, or other tissue damage. Pain triggers a vascular disturbance in the limb, leading to bone, muscle, and skin atrophy. Stage 1: limb is warm, swollen, red, and intensely painful; transitions spontaneously or with treatment to Stage 2 within 2–6 months. Stage 2: skin is cold, clammy, and movement is painful (lasting 3–6 months). Stage 3: pain gradually resolves and heals; however, neglected cases lead to permanent atrophy, joint capsule and tendon contractures, and severe permanent deformity/disability. Treatment aims to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, improve circulation, and promote bone remineralization. Stage 1 requires limb rest, but immobilization may continue into Stage 2. Active exercises, weight-bath hydrotherapy, and gentle stretching in warm water are vital to prevent contractures and preserve strength.

Super-, supra-:

Prefix meaning above, over, or excessive. E.g., suprapatellar bursa (bursa above the kneecap).

Superficialis:

Superficial / near the surface.

Supination:

Movement of the forearm at the elbow and radioulnar joints. In supination, the palm faces upward when the arm is extended forward.

Sura:

Calf (leg).

Suralis:

Pertaining to the calf.

Synovectomy:

Surgical, chemical (osmium compounds), or radiopharmaceutical (e.g., Yttrium) destruction/removal of the synovial membrane. The synovium produces joint fluid; when inflamed, its hypersecretion leads to joint swelling. Prolonged swelling stretches and damages the capsule and ligaments, and chronic inflammation can erode articular cartilage. Synovectomy aims to prevent these complications.

Synovia:

Synovial fluid, providing joint lubrication for frictionless movement. Secreted by inner synovial membrane folds, it facilitates smooth gliding of articular surfaces and nourishes intra-articular structures.

Synovial fluid (synovia):

A viscous fluid within the joint that "lubricates" the joint and ensures nearly friction-free movement.

Synovial membrane (synovium):

Lines the joint from the inside and produces the synovial fluid with its glove-finger-like projections (villi).

Synovitis:

Inflammation of the synovial membrane.

Synovium:

The inner lining of the joint capsule that produces synovial fluid.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE):

A chronic autoimmune disease of unknown origin lasting years that causes inflammation of small blood vessels. It can affect virtually any organ system. Often begins with skin rash, arthritis, and fever. Rash typical on nose bridge and cheeks ("butterfly rash") or sun-exposed areas. Can involve kidneys, heart, lungs, liver, spleen, lymph nodes, eyes, and central nervous system. Treated effectively with corticosteroids and immunosuppressants.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) (systemas lupus erythemathosus):

A chronic autoimmune disease of unknown origin lasting for years, which causes inflammation of the small arteries. It can affect practically every organ. It often begins with skin rashes, joint inflammation, and possibly fever. The rash typically appears on the bridge of the nose and both cheeks, as well as elsewhere on sun-exposed areas. It can affect the kidneys, heart, lungs, liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and eyes, and not infrequently causes neurological symptoms as well. Steroid preparations and immunosuppressive drugs are effective in its treatment.

Talus:

Ankle bone.

Tarsus:

Instep region of the foot.

Technetium (Tc):

The element with atomic number 43; its gamma-emitting isotope is used for scintigraphy.

Tendinitis, tendovaginitis:

Tendon inflammation (tendinitis) and tendon sheath inflammation (tendovaginitis). They occur due to acute injury or overuse. They are usually used together with the name of the affected tendon, e.g., Achilles tendinitis. They can be caused by infectious diseases or degenerative changes, and can also be partial manifestations of various conditions such as diabetes or rheumatoid arthritis. The tendon connects muscles to bone, so they act together in exerting force. In bends and areas exposed to mechanical stress, the tendon runs within a tendon sheath, which is more frequently affected by inflammation than the tendon itself. The tendon sheath swells and becomes tender to pressure; stretching the tendon and using the muscle associated with the tendon is painful. Predisposing factors include frequently repeated movements (e.g., the Achilles tendon of marathon runners, or the finger flexor tendons of frequent computer keyboard users). In diagnosis, ultrasound examination and MRI can detect the swelling of the tendon and tendon sheath. Immobilization of the muscle, cold compresses, physiotherapy aimed at improving local circulation, possibly taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for a few days, and aspiration of exudate will eliminate symptoms.

Tendo:

Tendon.

Tendon:

The tough, connective tissue end of a muscle that anchors the muscle to the bone. It also attaches muscles to organs such as the eye. It does not merely anchor, but is also part of the muscles' force transmission system. It stretches during certain phases of the joint's range of motion, thereby accumulating force/energy within itself, which increases the efficiency of muscle fiber contraction in the subsequent part of the range of motion.

Tendon sheath (vagina tendinis):

In places exposed to high friction, the tendon runs in a tube-shaped sheath, which ensures the smooth gliding of the tendon.

Tennis elbow (epicondylitis lateralis humeri), Golf elbow (epicondylitis medialis humeri):

In tennis elbow, pain occurs on the outer side of the elbow upon pressure, during wrist twisting movements, or spontaneously. The cause is repeated forward-and-backward movement of the wrist (such as the backhand stroke in tennis). In golf elbow, pain occurs on the inner side of the elbow; the cause is repeated flexion and pronation (downward turning) of the wrist (such as the swing motion in golf). The incidence of tennis elbow is most common between the ages of 40 and 50, affecting 1–3% of the population. The incidence of golf elbow is about 20% of that of tennis elbow. Both develop gradually, and loading the muscles involved in wrist movement worsens them to the extent that after a while, holding a full glass or unscrewing a jar lid can cause difficulty. After a while, the pain also radiates into the forearm and middle finger. There is no unified consensus on its treatment. Usually, locally administered anti-inflammatory medications, icing, trigger point treatment of the affected muscle, and application of kinesiology tape improve it.

Thenar:

The muscular eminence of the thumb on the palm (thenar eminence), or of the big toe on the sole (hypothenar/thenar of foot).

Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS):

The blood vessels and nerves of the upper limb emerge above the collarbone between the muscles that move the neck, called the scalene muscles, at the upper part of the chest to enter the arm. The vessels and nerves can be compressed by a cervical rib, spasm of the scalene muscles, narrowing of the space between the 1st rib and the clavicle, sagging of the shoulder girdle in older age, hyperabduction syndrome, or diseases of the lung apex (pulmonary apex). These can cause numbness and pain in the ring and little fingers, decreased tactile sensation, and weakness of the hand. Special exercise therapy strengthening the neck and shoulder muscles is usually sufficient to eliminate the complaints; surgery is rarely necessary.

Thoracic Outlet Syndrome (TOS):

Blood vessels and nerves of the upper extremity emerge above the clavicle between the scalene muscles (which move the neck) at the upper chest to reach the arm. The vessels and nerves may be compressed by a cervical rib, spasm of the scalene muscles, narrowing of the space between the first rib and the clavicle, drooping of the shoulder girdle in older age, hyperabduction syndrome, or lung apex diseases, which can cause numbness and pain in the ring and little fingers, decreased tactile sensation, and hand weakness. Specialized physical therapy to strengthen the neck and shoulder muscles is usually sufficient to eliminate symptoms; surgery is rarely necessary.

Thorax:

Chest.

Thrombosis:

Occlusion of a blood vessel segment due to blood clot formation. This can occur in either the venous or arterial system. If a blood clot occludes an artery, its major consequence is hypoxia and ischemia (both denoting oxygen-depleted states) in the area it supplies, which may lead to necrosis (tissue death) in that territory. This rarely occurs in the venous system, except in the occlusion of major veins. Venous thrombosis can be superficial or affect deep veins. A blood clot forming in superficial vessels due to inflammation is called thrombophlebitis.

Thyreoidea:

Thyroid gland.

Thyroid gland (glandula thyreoidea):

An endocrine gland. It is located in the anterior part of the neck and regulates cellular metabolism. Its hormones are absolutely essential for growth and brain development. Underactivity of the thyroid gland (hypothyroidism) can cause dwarfism and mental disability in childhood; in adulthood, it can cause increased salt and water retention, bloating, slowed thinking, osteoporosis, muscle pain, vague joint complaints, early cartilage wear, and numbness of the hands. The disease is highly treatable by hormone replacement. Overactivity of the thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism) causes an elevated basal metabolic rate: weight loss despite an increased appetite, low-grade fever, irritability, hand tremors, osteoporosis, muscle disorders (myopathies), and vague limb and back pain. Medications that decrease thyroid function (antithyroid drugs) are highly effective in managing these symptoms.

Tibia:

Shinbone.

TNF therapy:

Our immune system produces Tumour Necrosis Factor (TNF), the level of which in the blood remains constant in a healthy state. In autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, SPA, SLE), the level of this cytokine/antigen in the blood increases, thereby triggering inflammation throughout the body. TNF inhibitors, which are antibodies, evoke an immune reaction upon administration that supports the body's anti-inflammatory processes. The patient receives the medication via subcutaneous injection or intravenous infusion every 1–4 weeks.

Tonsilla:

Tonsil.

Tonsillectomy:

Surgical removal of the tonsils.

Tophus:

Nodule, node.

Tophus uraticus:

Gouty tophus; composed of uric acid crystals and inflammatory cells.

Torsion (torsio):

Twisting.

Torticollis:

Wryneck; causes an oblique posture of the neck, where the top of the head tilts to one side and the chin to the other. Causes include developmental anomaly, sprain, upper respiratory tract infection, or exposure of neck muscles to cold. Congenital torticollis is the result of shortening of the sternocleidomastoid muscle on one side; its origin is unknown. If diagnosed in infancy, full recovery can be achieved through neck exercises, or possibly using a cotton collar or plaster bed. The exercise techniques are taught to parents. It is advisable to position the infants so that they must stretch the shortened muscle to view their environment, i.e., lay them facing the wall, and feed them such that they must turn their head toward the healthy side. If torticollis does not resolve despite these measures, surgery is performed at 1–2 years of age depending on severity. Torticollis developing in adulthood may be caused by ear infection, trauma, or neurological/muscular injury. It can be transient or fixed. In transient cases, lymph nodes are usually enlarged due to infection, and neck muscles may be swollen. In fixed states, the condition can be improved or further deterioration prevented.

TOS:

Thoracic Outlet Syndrome.

Toxic (toxicus):

Poisonous.

Trachea:

Windpipe.

Traction (tractio):

Pulling, stretching.

Trans-:

Prefix meaning across, through.

Transcutaneous:

Administration of a medication or substance into the body through the skin.

Transfusion (transfusio):

Blood transfusion.

Transplantation (transplantatio):

Grafting tissue or an organ taken from another site or donor into the recipient's body.

Trigger finger (digitus saltans):

"Trigger finger," medically termed digitus saltans, is the most common condition involving tendon sheath narrowing caused by tenosynovitis (tendon sheath inflammation) in the hand for which people seek medical attention. Previously, it was mainly a disease of middle-aged homemakers; nowadays, it also affects younger generations due to the rapid spread of electronic devices and computers. With regular keyboard typing and texting for 8–10 hours a day, the tendons and tendon sheaths become overloaded and react with inflammatory changes. Initially, they slide with greater difficulty, later they hitch and release (producing a popping or clicking sound) during movement, and eventually, they become completely locked. Early symptoms of the disease: the affected finger moves with greater difficulty during flexion and extension, the patient feels the finger is swollen, and symptoms worsen in the morning and ease during the day, yet become constant. In some cases, a small, painless nodule can initially be felt in the palm in the area of the flexor tendon sheath of the affected finger.

Trigger point (Myofascial Trigger Point - MTrP):

An MTrP is a hyperirritable spot within the fascia covering muscles. Upon palpation, a muscular nodule and an associated taut band can be felt. Its formation is linked to an identifiable minor or major trauma, or sustained overuse. Such overuse can be a frequently repeated movement (e.g., painting 100 meters of fence, or an all-day unusual physical exertion) or static poor posture. Circulation and nutrition in a tense MTrP deteriorate, causing it to persist silently in the muscle in a self-sustaining manner. At this stage it causes no pain, but impairs the elasticity of the affected muscle. These invisible MTrPs are called latent trigger points. Upon a new trauma, they can become active, causing local or radiating pain. Recently, their presence has also become demonstrable by MRI, but palpation during physical examination remains simpler. If pressure on them elicits a "familiar, customary" pain for the patient, the MTrP is indirectly confirmed as the cause of pain, and treated accordingly with ice, heat, compression, or dry needling.

Trochanter:

Bony outgrowth of the upper femur.

Trochanter major, trochanter minor:

Greater trochanter: a bony tuberosity on the outer side of the femur in the hip region serving as an attachment site for muscles. Lesser trochanter: located below the hip joint in the groin area on the inner aspect of the thigh. They frequently become painful due to overuse and various hip diseases. Rest, cold compresses, packs, and anti-inflammatory ointments usually eliminate the complaint; if insufficient, local pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory injections are generally effective. In physiotherapy, identifying and treating the overused muscle achieves long-term results in resolving inflammation of the bursae between bone and tendon.

Tuber:

Tuberosity / knob.

Tuberculosis (TB):

A disease caused by tuberculosis bacteria. Bone and joint tuberculosis most commonly spread from bone to the knee, hip, sacroiliac and shoulder joints, but primary joint tuberculosis can also occur. Tuberculous inflammation of the spine (Pott's disease) also occurs. In addition to general symptoms such as low-grade fever, weight loss, and fatigue, characteristic signs include swelling, restricted mobility, and pain of the affected joint, or pain and stiffness upon spinal loading. Medication therapy may be supplemented by surgical intervention when necessary.

Tunnel syndrome:

Passing between bones, muscles, and ligaments, a nerve and/or blood vessel undergoes temporary or permanent compression, becoming temporarily or permanently damaged. Compression of the nerve can cause pain, numbness, and weakness, while compression of the vessel can cause circulatory disorders; e.g., Carpal Tunnel syndrome.

Ulcus:

Ulcer.

Ulna:

singcsont

Ultra-high frequency therapy (UHF / decimetre wave therapy):

Electromagnetic waves in the decimetre range partially pass through skin and adipose tissue; they are absorbed mainly in the muscles, causing localized deep heating. It is an analgesic, muscle-relaxing, and circulation-improving treatment.

Ultrasound examination (ultrasonography):

Under the influence of electrical impulses, the device emits ultrasound waves, detects the reflected waves, and converts them into electrical signals to display a readable or printable image on a monitor. Soft tissues are clearly visible with its help, though it is not suitable for examining bones. It is well-suited for evaluating cartilage, ligament, joint capsule, muscle, and tendon injuries, as well as cysts. Developmental dysplasia of the hip in infants can be examined without radiation exposure.

Ultrasound therapy:

Ultrasound treatment is based on the piezoelectric effect, meaning that under the influence of an electric current, a crystal in the treatment head creates sound waves outside the range of audible sound (1.0–3.0 MHz). These are longitudinal waves that apply pressure and tension to tissues, heating them up and producing a micro massage of the cells. Different tissues absorb ultrasound differently depending on their collagen content, resulting in relative displacement between tissue layers. Consequently, blood circulation improves, connective tissue loosens, and muscle tone decreases. The analgesic effect is a consequence of these factors.

Ultraviolet therapy (quartz lamp, solarium):

Absorbed ultraviolet radiation produces various biological effects in tissues: skin erythema, tanning, vitamin D synthesis, and an increase in systemic resistance. Among musculoskeletal conditions, it is used in the treatment of osteoporosis, osteomalacia, rickets and psoriasis.

Uni-:

Prefix meaning one, single.

Uremia (uraemia):

Accumulation of nitrogenous waste products in the blood due to impaired renal function.

Urether:

Ureter.

Urethra:

Uretra.

Urtica:

Wheal / hives.

Urticaria:

Hives.

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TEST RESULT ANALYZER

Abductio (abduction):

Abductor (abductor):

Aberratio (aberration):

Acetabulum (acetabulum):

Acetabulum / Articular cavity (acetabulum):

Achilles tendon:

Acidum uricum (uric acid):

Acromion:

ACTH:

Acute (acutus):

Adductio (adduction):

Adductor (adductor):

Adhaesio (adhesion):

Adhesiv capsulitis (adhesive capsulitis):

Adrenal gland (glandula suprarenalis):

Adreno-:

Agenesia (agenesis):

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome):

Algodystrophia (algodystrophy):

Anaemia (anemia):

Analgeticum (analgesic):

Ankylosing spondylitis (ankylosing spondylitis):

Ankylosing spondylitis (SPA - Spondylarthritis ankylopoetica):

Ankylosis (ankylosis):

Anomaly:

Ante-:

Anterior:

Anti-:

Antibacterialis (antibacterial):

Antibioticum (antibiotic):

Antibody:

Antibody:

Antigen (antigen):

Antinuclear antibody (ANA):

Antiphlogisticus (antiphlogistic / anti-inflammatory):

Antiphlogisticus (antiphlogistic):

Antiphlogistine poultice:

Antipyreticum (antipyretic):

Antirheumaticum (antirheumatic):

Arteritis (arteritis):

Artery:

Arthralgia (arthralgia):

Arthritis (arthritis):

Arthrocentesis (arthocentesis):

Arthrodesis (arthrodesis):

Arthrographia (arthrography):

Arthropathia (arthropathy):

Arthroplastica (arthroplasty):

Arthroscopy:

Arthrosis (arthrosis):

Arthrotomia (arthrotomy):

Articular cartilage (cartilago articularis):

Articular head (caput articulare):

Articularis (articular):

Articulatio (articulation):

Atrophia (atrophy):

Autoantibody:

Autoimmune processes:

Axilla:

Baastrup's syndrome:

Baker's cyst (Baker cyst):

Balneotherapy:

Balneum:

Bechterew's disease:

Behçet's syndrome:

Biological therapy:

Biological treatment:

Biopsia (biopsy):

Boeck's sarcoidosis:

Bone softening – Osteomalacia:

Borrelia burgdorferi:

Brachialgia:

Brachium:

Brucellosis:

Bulla:

Bursa (bursa):

Bursectomia (bursectomy):

Bursitis (bursitis):

Calcaneus: